In Tanzania 80% of the population live in informal settlements. Most of these settlements are built in areas that are susceptible to extreme weather conditions such as flooding. Such conditions have significantly contributed to the destruction of housing stock and other valuable properties. There is considerable awareness amongst people living in the informal settlements, government representatives and other key stakeholders about the various flood risks affecting informal settlements. Based on this understanding, several attempts to minimize flood risks have been initiated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, yet these initiatives have largely failed to deliver the desired impacts. This article aims to investigate core reasons for this through a case study of Keko Machungwa Informal settlement in Dar es Salaam City. The study explores the extent to which mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction (DRR) in housing development in informal settlements has been considered and implemented, and recommends measures for improvement. Key methods employed for the research included physical observation, household interviews, mapping, photographing, and in-depth interviews. Overall, the study found that mainstreaming of DRR in housing development was hardly practiced at the household level, as houses were predominantly being built without resistant building materials and supervision of relevant professionals. In order to mainstream DRR in housing development in informal settlements, it is recommended that mainstreaming DRR be embedded in laws and policies, highly vulnerable parts of the settlement be declared protected wetland and that the government direct its efforts towards regulating, controlling and monitoring the housing development sector. That letter can be achieved by emphasizing the use of flood resistant building materials and establishing resilient infrastructures for flood mitigation in every flood prone informal settlement.
In Tanzania 80% of the population live in informal settlements [
Nevertheless, Kombe and Kreibich [
There is considerable awareness amongst people living in the informal settlements, government representatives and other key stakeholders about the various flood risks affecting informal settlements. Based on this understanding, several attempts to minimize flood risks have been initiated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania yet these initiatives have largely failed to deliver the desired impacts. Indicators which show that the initiatives to minimize flood impact have failed are diverse, and include problems like dampness, destruction of properties, water logging to mention but a few [
Findings from previous studies that address disaster risk have focused on aspects including, perceptions and practices within international aid organizations regarding the existing and potential roles of urban planning as a tool for reducing disaster risk [
The main objective of the study was to explore the extent to which DRR is considered in housing development in the flood prone informal settlement of Keko Machungwa. Studying how DRR is considered in housing development was central for ensuring that these housing structures were reliable in protecting people and properties against flooding. However, before exploring extent to which DRR is considered in housing development, it was important to explore process of housing development.
Informal settlements are not new; they are a common phenomenon in many developing countries only that they are known by different names. For example, they are known as Kampungs in Indonesia, informal/unplanned settlements in Tanzania, Squatter settlements in Kenya, and slums and shantytowns in South Africa [
High rate of urbanization is among the causes of the growth of informal settlements and the corresponding increase in poverty. This is so because among the key challenges resulting from rapid urbanization in developing countries is the proliferation of settlements as a result of increasing urban growth and poverty Africa [
Informal settlements as one of the urbanization challenges were expected to be tackled by urban planning [
Informal settlements like any other built up areas, are supposed to be in good condition and served with functional infrastructure such as roads, water supply, drainage system and electricity. Unfortunately, informal settlements in Tanzania are characterized by inadequate or lack of infrastructure and/or services. Informal settlement are built and developed in hazard prone areas such as marshy, flood plains, valley, areas and watercourses [
Despite the fact that informal settlements are located in hazardous areas, they have been the refuge of the vast majority of urban population. About 80 percent of the houses in Tanzania for example are found in informal settlements [
Informal settlements in Kenya and Afghanistan portray example of informal settlements in developing countries. Residents in the informal settlements of Kenya face the problem of inadequate housing, little access to water, sanitation and other basic services, and the ever-present threat of forced eviction [
Disaster risk reduction focuses on reducing vulnerabilities and exposure stemming from development within high risk zones, unplanned urbanization, environmental degradation, population growth and climate change. The most commonly cited definition of DRR is one used by UNISDR “The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events” [
The widespread failure of governments across sub-Saharan Africa to deal with disasters before they happen has led to destruction of properties [
There is no more important factor in reducing a community’s risk from flood disaster than mainstreaming the disaster risk reduction in every development undertaken in a flood prone area. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in the housing sector means that:
All housing related interventions have considered the effect of natural hazards (current as well as future risks magnified by climate change) and of the impact of those interventions in turn, on vulnerability to natural hazards, and accordingly have adopted risk reduction measures [
This definition implies that incorporating disaster risk reduction measures when developing a house and flood mitigation measures is imperative for sustainable flood management.
Moreover, there is a need for controlling the quality of houses to withstand adverse flood impact. Good quality house can particularly be achieved where building codes exist and followed, since the main purpose of building codes are to protect public safety as they relate to the construction of buildings and any other structures [
Additionally, where urban drainage facilities that are meant to contain flooding at the community are insufficient the impacts go directly to individual households [
For the purpose of this study, disaster risk reduction measures will combine the following elements Structural integrity (adherence to building code), Building materials, Maintenance of structures, Quality and safety settlement (adaptation strategies at community level), and regulatory mechanism to enforce land use/building regulations.
There is a wide range of literature on disaster risk reduction [
It was noted by Wamsler [
Increasing scale of disaster occurrence and impact is a growing concern of all countries and people [
Disasters impact on all aspects of development [
These studies highlight that in order to reduce disaster risk there is a need to consider disaster risk reduction measures when building houses in areas that are prone to flood hazard.
Case study were carried out at the household and institutional2 levels in Keko Machungwa in 2015 to document the underlying factors contributing to risk and to determine process of housing development at the household level in Keko Machungwa. Understanding factors contributing to risk and the process of housing development are vital especially when one wants to establish whether or not DRR is being mainstreamed in the process of housing development. Data was collected using multiple qualitative methods and the household level investigation included observation, photographing, semi-structured interviews, and in-depth interviews with selected respondents. Approximately 60 (out of 3129 household in flooding area) of the interviews were conducted with households living in Keko Machungwa informal settlements.
Since the purpose of the research was to explore the extent to which DRR is being mainstreamed in housing development in the informal settlements of Keko Machungwa, purposive sampling was adopted as a viable sampling method for this study. Purposive sampling was employed so as to include household who are affected by floods and exclude those who are not affected by floods. However, to ensure reliability of data sample random sampling was applied when selecting the 60 households to be interviewed. The sample of 60 household was thus selected randomly among the households living in high risk area within the river valley of Keko Machungwa informal settlement. The emphasis was on exploring: the underlying risk factors, the process for housing development as well as DRR initiatives.
Group discussion and semi-structured interview were the main data collection tools used at the institutional level. Institutions interviewed included: sub-ward office (which is the lowest organ of local governance in Tanzania), ward office, engineering department and town planning department of Temeke Municipal Council. The focus of discussion with institutions was on analyzing existing procedures for housing construction and whether those procedures are followed.
It should be noted that, in Dar es Salaam, most informal settlements exist on risky areas which are vulnerable to floods and other hazards [
The area affected by flood is within the valley (Keko Machungwa Bondeni). Geographically, Keko Machungwa settlement is situated about 3 kilometres from the Dar es Salaam City centre. Administratively, Keko Machungwa is one of the subwards within Miburani Ward in Temeke Municipality. Keko Machungwa Sub-Ward lies between latitude 6˚50'10" and 6˚50'41" South and between longitude 39˚16'35" and 36˚17'1" East. Formerly it was a wetland used for agriculture; it was also a water course accumulating storm water from different elevated parts (for example Kurasini and Chang’ombe) towards the Indian Ocean. The fact that Keko Machungwa is located on a low-lying terrain, and not well drained, it is obvious that the settlement is susceptible to floods. In addition, to being affected by floods, Keko Machungwa has a problem of land use changes within the valley. Indeed, according to the Dar es Salaam Master Plan of 1979 [
As stated in Section 5, Keko Machungwa informal settlement lies within the Keko Machungwa River valley (see
“I did not like to build my house very close to this river (
Although the above statement was the opinion of an individual, it shows how vulnerable the settlement is. Furthermore, the damage that happens to the floor is a sign of disregard of DRR strategies (like the use of flood resistant building materials) when constructing their houses.
The factors that increase the risk of flooding in Keko Machungwa are summarised in
“As you can see my house is flooded (
The statement above is a quote captured during household interview when one woman explained about the frequency of floods in the area. In practice, the respondent’s statement means that Keko Machungwa is affected by floods in every rainy season, and the frequency of floods depends on rainfall intensity. The area is also affected by floods as a result of rainfall from upper catchment areas.
As a way of reducing impacts of flooding, residents in Keko Machungwa informal settlements have resorted to the use of structural adaptation strategies. Some of them include Protective wall; raised foundation; raised pit-latrine; raised plinth, in Disaster. These strategies are referred to as structural adaptation strategies. The uses of these strategies were meant to block flooding water.
According to
“I constructed this wall for protecting flood water from entering my house; however the wall is useless because even if there is little rain my compound gets filled with rain water, we are therefore forced to stay with this wet condition for a month. In the period of heavy rainfall the wall is helpless. Water overflows them and enters inside the house”.
The above explanation shows one of the adaptation strategies (protective wall) that were applied by a respondent to reduce the impact of flooding and the way they are not helped with the effort they had taken. This means that, given the high water table, it is possible during heavy rainfall to have flood that cannot be contained by the available strategies.
As a result of flooding and the fluctuating water table, some households raised their foundations of their houses and pit latrines to prevent the storm water from filling up their houses and pit latrines. Of 60 interviewed households, 28% had raised foundation of their houses and 23% had raised their pit latrines. The height of the raised foundation and pit-latrines depends on the financial ability of individual household, but the height range from 0.5 to 1 metre above the plinth level. It was reported by one interviewee that:
“What I want is someone to assist me move out of this place. I am tired of spending large part of the little income I get to reconstruct my toilet which has been collapsing regularly”.
Drawing from the above quote one issue is pertinent: DRR is hardly practiced when constructing the houses as well as adaptation strategies. Generally, it was determined that flood mitigation and risk minimization measures through the above mentioned intervention were hardly achieved at the household level, as adaptation strategies were constructed with no attention to DRR measures.
Building of houses together with infrastructures to prevent flooding in Keko Machungwa informal settlement does not differ with other informal settlements in Dar es Salaam city. A common building practice that is being used is through untrained local artisans. Out of 60 interviewed households, 57 (equivalent to 95%) admitted to build their houses and infrastructures to cope with floods through untrained local artisan. One of the questions raised during interview was how do you get a plot and what type of method do you use to build a house? 83% reported to buy their plots informally, after purchasing they seek for untrained local artisans who builds such houses 1) at a cheap price, 2) without any house layout plan and 3) without any breakdown of the types of building materials relevant to the local conditions. Houses and even flood prevention infrastructures are built on the experience of the untrained local artisans as well as by copying from other people who live in this area or somewhere else. Similarly it was reported that buildings in Keko Machungwa are built without application of building permits from the responsible authorities, also there is no building inspection conducted by the responsible authorities.
“I like using local artisan because they are easily available within our settlement and they charge relatively low price compared to engineers”.
Where structures are designed and constructed by untrained local artisan, it is very hard to have structures that can withstand adverse flood action. With the practice of using untrained local artisan in the design and construction works, the inevitable conclusion is that the vulnerability of buildings is increased.
Moreover, because Keko Machungwa is a flood-prone area, it was expected that, care must have been taken in the selection and purchase of building materials and hence construct houses that are resilience to flooding. The act of developing land with the use of untrained local artisan means that consultation and supervision by engineers is ignored; therefore, it is very difficult to have buildings that can withstand flooding for a prolonged period.
Although Tanzania has many laws prohibiting construction of houses in high-risk areas (for example Environmental Management Act, Act No. 20 of 2004
[
It was observed that there were variations in terms of building materials used to construct houses which impacted durability of the houses. 86% of the interviewed households in Keko Machungwa reported that building materials used for construction of houses (from foundations to walls) consisted of sand and cement blocks. On the other hand, the remaining 14% of interviewees reported that they construct their houses using soil bricks. These types of building materials are vulnerable to floods when there is a prolonged flood event [
“I can not do maintenance in time because of life hardships, sometimes I have to just do maintenance after 5 years, I usually do that after feeling that more damage will occur to my house” (a quote from one of the interviewed household).
“We have the mechanism of going around our settlement after occurrence of every flooding; the aim is to encourage people to do maintenance to the destructed parts of their buildings. However, the response is very poor, maintenance is given low priority for reasons like 1) high cost of living and 2) maintenance is not part of their daily plans of life” (a quote from Keko Machungwa sub-ward leader).
The above quotes as reported by one of the interviewed household and a chairman of Keko Machungwa sub-ward shows that maintenance is not given priority by the residents living in Keko Machungwa. This is despite the fact that
the settlement is frequently affected by floods. Likewise, where necessary maintenance is done in a reactive manner, where the size of the damage to the house choose the direction.
Overall, when maintenance of the buildings after flooding was examined, it was revealed the lack of maintenance as reported by 81% of the interviewed households. One of the reasons reported is that they failed to do their due maintenance of buildings due to construction costs as well as other costs of living. This situation of disregarding timely maintenance of buildings led to weakening of buildings, rendering them vulnerable to failure when severe floods hit the settlement.
Despite the fact that the ability of a house to withstand impacts of floods depends on the adherence to specific construction procedures and the use of flood resistant building materials, availability, suitability and durability of infrastructure to prevent flooding in that specific area has a great contribution in mitigating the effects of floods to the houses. As mentioned in Section 5.1 that, Keko Machungwa settlements is one of the informal settlements that is frequently affected by floods, despite that fact, there are no sincere efforts made to set specific infrastructure (e.g. storm water drains) to prevent/minimize the impact of flooding in the area. Construction of infrastructure to cope with flooding is done by local people themselves without considering quality and flood resistant building materials (see
Mainstreaming DRR in housing development means that all housing related interventions and disaster mitigation structures consider the effect of natural hazards that are happening and expected to happen in future. In addition it should be noted that, once vulnerability to natural hazards on housing have been considered then disaster risk reduction measures must be adopted.
In order for mainstreaming DRR in housing development to be followed by those who live in flood prone areas, mainstreaming DRR must be incorporated in laws and policies of the particular country. This will be very helpful especially in dealing with legal enforcement and to deal with those who violate the law (not include disaster risk reduction measures in the development of houses and other structures in flood prone areas). In Tanzania for example there is no law and/or policy that put emphasis on mainstreaming DRR in housing development in flood prone areas. This is a very serious constraint especially in an endeavor to reduce disaster risks impacts.
The situation is even worse in flood-prone areas of the informal settlements. Tanzania urban authorities have side-lined planning in informal settlements
based on the perception that they are problematic and lie outside the planning area. This is the reason as to why construction of buildings in informal settlements does not need to follow the procedures as in planned areas and as listed in Urban Planning Act No. 8 of 2007 [
The action of residents living in informal settlement to invest in flood mitigation measures it mean that they realize that floods are dangerous to their homes and their lives in general. The biggest problem that people in these areas face is low level of income, which leads to non-compliance with professional procedures in the construction of houses and flood mitigation infrastructure and thus the structures built are not resilient to flood impact. Therefore, financial constraint is one of the contributing factors that limit mainstreaming DRR efforts in an endeavor to reduce flood risk impacts.
Information provided by the interviewed households indicated that flood is one of the biggest threats to the durability of their houses especially when considering the fact that floods occur frequently. This indicates that residents in Keko Machungwa have a greater understanding on the severity of flooding in their settlement. Under normal circumstances it was expected that this understanding would instigate residents to build strong buildings in order to mitigate the impact of flooding to their houses. Disappointingly, the situation is different from what was expected; whereas, many buildings are built without taking into account the realities of the impact of flooding in the settlement. A major reason for this practice is life hardships (high costs). Cost is likely to inhibit employment of appropriate adaptation measures, as Bubeck et al. assert [
While a flood by nature does not constitute disaster risk, underlying vulnerabilities lead to disaster risk and resulting losses. As discussed in Section 5, the major factors contributing to the increase in flooding and hence increased vulnerability of buildings and people are encroachment on river valley, absence of robust flood control infrastructures, haphazard dumping of solid waste, and concentration of buildings. Moreover, housing related development in Keko Machungwa does not consider the effects of flooding and mainstreaming of DRR in housing development is not practiced in Keko Machungwa. A number of views were evident with regard to disregard of mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in housing development. Firstly, it was revealed that there is no specific authority to supervise the construction of buildings in Keko Machungwa and in other informal settlements in Tanzania. Thus, in terms of supervision of constructed buildings residents in informal settlements have been doing that by themselves. Secondly, there is lack of skilled human resources for constructing houses. This was evident in the type of human resources used to construct their houses, whereas, it was reported by the majority (95%) that they use untrained local artisans. The untrained local artisans lack knowledge on the construction techniques that can reduce vulnerability of building stocks in flood prone areas. The findings that absence of specific authority to supervise the construction of buildings and lack of skilled human resources for constructing houses as factors that contribute vulnerability of building stock correspond with scholarly work by RCC [
Thirdly, disregard of the use of flood resistant building materials, instead of using material that can withstand flood impact, they use building materials that are easily affected by flooding. About 86% of the interviewed household uses sand cement blocks. Sand cement blocks according to FEMA [
Flood victims (residents in Keko Machungwa) have attempted to apply certain flood adaptation strategies. However, the initiatives (adaptation strategies) were ineffective in minimizing flood impacts. This is a challenge because despite these efforts, the vulnerability of people and properties in informal settlements is increasing. However, it is an opportunity that residents in Keko Machungwa informal settlement are proactive in taking measures to contain the situation (flood risk), as a way forward, the initiatives at household level need to be enhanced by making sure that mainstreaming DRR is practiced.
Compared to planned areas, where for anyone to build a house construction procedures3 must be followed, the action of the absence and disregard of such procedures in informal settlements implies that the government is not paying adequate attention to the informal settlements.
As mentioned earlier (see Section 4), large parts of Keko Machungwa are on hazardous land, with buildings constructed on waterways, which endangers the lives of residents and buildings, and is contrary to the rules and regulations. Despite this situation, still, there is lack of sincere efforts made (particularly by the government) to build robust flood control infrastructures to prevent flooding in the settlement. Through self-organization residents have ended up building substandard flood control infrastructures (for example tree logs) but most of the infrastructures constructed to minimize impact of flooding does not prevent flood water from affecting their houses. This finding confirmed the argument of WMO/GWP [
Informal settlements have become a refuge for many people living in developing countries despite the fact that most of these settlements are located in flood-prone areas. In order to reduce the impact of flooding on the people and the buildings in flood-prone informal settlements, transition is urgently required from ignoring the quality of houses being built in flood-prone informal settlements towards monitoring all housing related developments to ensure mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction measures. For this to succeed, it will require joint efforts of local people, government authorities, civil societies and disaster experts.
As this study shows, the reason as to why issues associated with mainstreaming DRR are inadequately administered is a serious shortage of trained human resources, absence of law and/or policy that puts the emphasis on mainstreaming DRR, financial constraints and isolation of informal settlement by the existing planning law system. Hence, effective policies will have to provide 1) guideline that can guide appropriate training program for training disaster experts to strengthen human resource capacity to design and develop houses that are resistant to flooding and hence manage disaster risks at all levels; 2) regulating and controlling the construction of structures in informal settlement. It has been learnt in this study that 100% of buildings in informal settlements are constructed without close supervision by the responsible authorities; therefore, their resilience to flooding is questionable. It is thus recommended that the construction of structures in informal settlements be regulated and controlled.
Where houses have to be built in flood prone locations, design must incorporate construction materials resistance to locally experienced hazards. As a way forward, there is a need to promote the use of flood damage-resistant material so that buildings should not be easily affected by floods. Flood-resistant materials are capable of withstanding direct and prolonged contact with floodwaters without sustaining significant damage [
Having trained disaster experts and the use of flood damage-resistant material alone are not enough to ensure that disaster risks are minimized in the settlement. Therefore, there is a need to analyze local environment critically to determine the suitable infrastructure that may be constructed to contain and redirect rain water that would otherwise cause floods in the Keko Machungwa community. The Temeke Municipal Council, Sub-Ward government, interested development partners and the local community constitute the key stakeholders in implementing this in Keko Machungwa.
Above all, development control measures, including adherence to provisions in the Urban Planning Act No. 8 of 2007, and Township building rules should be enforced to control development in hazard lands. Moreover, the construction of houses in Keko Machungwa and in other flood prone informal settlement should be regulated and controlled to follow current procedures for housing development. That is following a procedure that involves 1) application of building permits to relevant authorities, 2) scrutiny of design drawings, 3) site inspections by qualified and authorised personnel, 4) requesting and receiving pre-construction inspection, 5) requesting and receiving construction consent and 6) monitoring the construction process to ensure that the prerequisite DRR aspects are considered and implemented.
Since the case study area is an informal settlement developed on fragile land, the law is very clear on such a type of land. It restricts any kind of development on these environmentally sensitive areas. For example, Section 7(1) (b) of the Land Act identifies wetlands in the category of hazard lands, and Section 52 of the Environmental Management Act of 2004 among other issues identifies swamps as environmentally sensitive areas. The National Human Settlements Development Policy of 2000 under Section 4.3.9 identifies invasion of hazardous and fragile areas as among the critical challenges for urban development. In view of this, there is a need to protect such areas from encroachment and hence reduce settlement vulnerability. This is possible because Section 56 of the Environmental Management Act of 2004 gives mandate to the minister responsible for environment in consultation with the minister responsible for lands to protect wetlands? There is a need for responsible authorities to declare part of Keko Machungwa which is highly affected by flood as a hazardous land.
The author is grateful for the academic and moral support received from the late Dr. Samson Elisha Kasala. The support of William Kasyegeta with data collection is gratefully acknowledged. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.
Sakijege, T. (2019) Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Housing Development in Keko Machungwa. Journal of Environmental Protection, 10, 315-336. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2019.102018