This is a review article based on literature (national and international) and empirical approach. A general overview on research priority areas on biodiversity and approaches and tools to provide information for forest policy implementation on biodiversity are briefly summarized. Challenges for biodiversity research and related policy in Europe and Greece are depicted. General information on forests, protected areas and forest management in Greece is also presented. Major actions and measures for conservation of forest biodiversity in Greece are described and analysed. The implementation of forest policy in Greece (including the adoption of International constitutional frame) in relation to biodiversity protection and climate change is also analysed. Priorities identified by the Strategic Plan of Rural Development 2007-2013 in Greece in order to adapt to climate change, are also presented. Furthermore, the National institutional framework (Legislation) and strategic targets for biodiversity conservation in Greece are synoptically presented. Finally, major conclusions and future challenges are highlighted.
The definition of Biodiversity has set as follows: Biodiversity is composed of the total biological variation, ranging from within-species genetic variation, through species, communities, and landscapes [
- Ecosystem services related to biodiversity;
- Understanding and adapting to changes;
- Conservation and management of biodiversity;
- Sustainable use of biodiversity: agriculture, fisheries and forestry;
- Understanding the underlying causes of biodiversity loss.
These research priority areas aim to better understand and predict changes at all levels of biodiversity (from genes to species and then to ecosystems) and to investigate the potential consequences of these changes on human life. However, current international and European research strategies clearly highlight that these priorities cannot be managed properly without a strong knowledge developed by evaluating and monitoring biodiversity at all scales (genes, species, ecosystems―using molecular techniques and biodiversity indicators) and a deeper understanding of the relations between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning (e.g. clean water) and the services (e.g. recreation) provided to humans [
Forest policy in Europe is very diverse and has to do with the many different topics of forestry and the legislation status in each EU country. Forest policies require a broad perspective on land use and natural resource management including biodiversity. Forest policy needs to be updated on a regular basis and the involvement of stakeholders plays an important role in this process, often through workshops, targeted meetings and interviews [
Models and tools may compare different policies, land uses or management options. They can provide information, promote stakeholder interaction, link forest issues with broader social aspects and compare future scenarios. As no single available model meets all these requirements, a combination of different methods and tools is necessary [
Forest policy topics related to biodiversity management and conservation | |
---|---|
1 | Natural Resources |
2 | Ecosystem Services |
3 | Forest Inventory and Land Use Mapping |
4 | Forest Certification and Wood Trade |
5 | Forest Reproductive Material (certification and trade) |
6 | Sustainable Forest Management |
7 | Soil and Water Conservation |
8 | Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources |
9 | National Parks and other Protected Areas |
10 | Biodiversity conservation and Protection of Habitats |
11 | Forest Protection (woodlands) |
12 | Biomass and Bioenergy and Impacts on Ecosystems |
13 | Climate Change and Mitigation |
14 | Climate Change and Adaptive Forest Management |
15 | Land Use and Landscape Conservation |
16 | Environmental Pollution (air, soil & water) |
17 | Urban and Sub-Urban Forestry |
18 | Social Aspects |
clear manner. Highly complex models (e.g. complicated models predicting future changes in biodiversity) have only limited value as a tool to stimulate participation, and may discourage active stakeholder participation in the policy implementation. The biggest challenge is to keep the models as simple as possible (e.g. development of simple indices) [
The present study is a review work summarizing the challenges for biodiversity research and related policy in Europe and Greece but the focus is on the implementation of forest policy in Greece in relation to forest biodiversity, protection of forests and climate change.
As mentioned above, biodiversity is composed of the total biological variation, ranging from within-species genetic variation, through species, communities, and landscapes [
The biodiversity research challenges are broadly grouped into the following areas [
Effective biodiversity conservation strategies―in which policy makers, researchers, other stakeholders and the general public are involved―are summarized as follows [
1) It is necessary to invest in a European infrastructure for biodiversity data and research. It is important for Europe to invest in selected infrastructures which support biodiversity research in order to increase the knowledge on biodiversity and its impact on the functioning of ecosystems, and therefore help decision makers in implementing cost-effective management plans.
2) There is a need for a powerful plan enhancing fundamental knowledge of biodiversity drivers and threats.
3) There is a great need for an effective transfer of scientific knowledge into biodiversity practice to secure that scientific evidence is available to inform both, policy development and practical implementation of conservation management.
4) There is a need for a consistent and global biodiversity conservation policy, which also aims to change the behavior of people in Europe to ensure that biodiversity conservation in Europe and globally is highly important. We can mention here the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) which serves as an interface between the scientific community and policy makers with the aim to strengthen the use of science in policy making. The Platform was established in April 2012 and is an independent intergovernmental body that is open to all member countries of the United Nations. IPBES was officially opened in the UN Campus Bonn in July 2014 [
5) Given that biodiversity and ecosystem services (products and functions) are of huge importance for sustainable development in the long term, biodiversity issues in all national policies should be implemented. Per the 2006 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), ecosystem services are “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems”. The MA also delineated the four categories of ecosystem services: supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural [
6) When future biodiversity conservation strategies are developed, it is important to consider pollution, climate change impacts and sustainable development.
7) The economic consequences of biodiversity losses need to be quantified to enable a system in which the responsible person/company causing the loss will need to pay for the costs linked to the loss and the restoration of biodiversity. Here it becomes clear; in order to relate biodiversity loss to economic loss it has to be measured [
8) To realise efficient prevention, a European strategy to deal with invasive exotic species is of high priority. Prevention is the most efficient strategy to reduce the number of invasive exotic species and their negative impacts on biodiversity and natural environment.
9) It is also important that the collaboration across scientific disciplines for integrated biodiversity research which therefore emphasizes the need to support multidisciplinary collaborative networks and Research and Technology Development (RTD) programmes.
10) Efforts for raising biodiversity education and awareness are necessary to get the support from the whole of society for a successful biodiversity policy implementation. Furthermore, the study of biodiversity and the ecological responses to environmental changes is of high priority.
To summarise, conservation measures and strategy for protecting biodiversity in Europe are highly important issues. Global climate change and pollution may cause change in the present distribution of important species (e.g. beech) in Europe (e.g. movement upwards to higher altitudes) and replacing parts of the beech forest area by other species (e.g. oak, fir, pine) [
In Greece, most of the forests and forested lands are State owned (>75%). Of the total forests and forested lands around 20% are high forests, mostly naturally regenerated. The rest are partly forested areas, bush lands, grazing lands, rocky areas or bare land [
Forests in Greece have been managed sustainably over a long period of time until now [
Also highly important is the functional role of the forest ecosystems. The main ecosystem functions have been recognised as the following: soil conservation, water balance, carbon sequestration, wild life maintenance, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity support. The number of plant taxa (species and subspecies) of the very rich flora in Greece is estimated to 6500 (5750 species); 15.1% - 17.6% at species and 17.7% - 20.9% at taxa level are endemic [
However, Greece, as part of the Mediterranean Basin, is considered to be among the most vulnerable countries due to the combined effect of high temperatures and reduced precipitation in areas already coping with water scarcity [
Since Greece started creating protected areas, administration has been carried out by the Forest Service―through its Forest District Offices―governmental bodies under the Ministry of Agriculture (now under the Ministry of Environment and Climatic Change). Decisions are made centrally and management practices include strict protection. Management decisions were made without any kind of anticipated participatory procedure. Although Law 1650/1986 granted more power to Ministry of Environment, Planning and Public Works, which is the main operator of forest policy development in the protected areas created after 1986, the actual management of all protected areas, created before 1986, still remains within Forest District Offices. Currently, 28 protected areas with Management Bodies were designated (Law 3044/2002) [
The International conventions ratified by the Greek State and related to Biodiversity (
1) The wetlands of International Importance of the Ramsar Convention (
2) The Monuments of the World Inheritance (UNESCO).
3) The Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO, Human and Biosphere).
4) The Special Protected Areas (Convention of Barcelona).
Convention | Subject/Theme | Place and Date of Ratification | Ratification in Greece |
---|---|---|---|
Convention of CITES | Convention for the international trade of wild fauna and flora threatened by distinction | Washington (USA) 03/03/1973 | Law 2055/1992 (ΦΕΚ Α’105/30-6-92) |
Convention of Bonn | Convention for the protection of migrated birds | Bonn (Germany) 23/06/1979 | Ν. 2719/1999 (ΦΕΚ Α’ 106/26-05-1999) |
Convention of Bern | Conservation for the wild life and natural environment of Europe | Bern (Switzerland) 19/09/1979 | Ν. 1335/1983 (ΦΕΚ Α’ 32/14-03-1983) |
Convention for Biological Diversity | Convention of the United Nations for the biological diversity | Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) 05/06/1992 | N. 2204/1994 (ΦΕΚ Α’ 59/15-04-1994). |
The Protocol of Carthagene | Protocol for biosecurity of the United Nations’ Convention for the biological diversity | Nairobi (Kenya) 24/05/2000 | Ν. 3233/2004 (ΦΕΚ Α’ 51/18-02-2004) |
The European Convention of Landscape | Conservation of European Landscapes | Florence (Italy) 20/10/2000 | Ν. 3827/2010 (ΦΕΚ Α’ 30/25-02-2010) |
*Source: http://www.ypeka.gr (2015).
5) The Biogenetic Reserves (Council of Europe).
6) The Areas that have been awarded the Euro diploma (Council of Europe).
Historical analysis of forest policy in Greece in relation to biodiversity is synoptically described as following:
1) Moving towards to the creation of the first National parks: 1938-1966
The Law 856/37―generally defines national parks as “mainly forested areas of special conservation interest in terms of flora and fauna, geomorphology, soil, atmosphere, waters and general their natural environment for aesthetic, recreation and for carrying out all kinds of scientific research”. As a start, seven (7) national parks were thus created in Greece [
2) The broadening of the protected areas: 1966-1992
Law 996/1971―primary purpose is conservation where recreational activities are only allowed if conservation values are not compromised [
The International Ramsar convention was ratified by the Law 191/74―Greece has designated 11 regions as Wetlands of International Importance according to this Convention (
Law 1650/1986 replaces all previous legislation introducing changes regarding in situ demarcation procedure and 5 new categories of protected areas. Its implementation has been limited (2 marine parks were created in 1986 and no other areas were given special protection until 1992).
3) Natura network: 1992 onwards
The implementation of this network in Greece was facilitated in the form of new laws and a declaration policy. Natura 2000 network is well representative in regards to the country’s biodiversity and it distributed over the whole country [
in the National list 241 Sites of Community Importance (SCI) according to the EU Directive 92/43 and has also declared 202 Special Protected Areas (SPA) according to EU Directive 79/409 (total area of 5.5 million ha) [
Climate change mitigation and adaption is one of the main targets identified in the strategy for sustainable development launched by Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change (MEECC) in 2002. Greece ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 (Law 3017/2002) and adopted a National Programme ensuring its commitment by a decision of the Council of Ministers (DCM5/2003). By the Law 3017/2002, the former Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works (MEPPPW)―now MEECC―is designated as the governmental body responsible for the coordination of all other competent ministries and possibly any other public and/or private entities, for a) the implementation of the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol, and b) the formulation and monitoring of the National Programme for achieving the national targets set under the Kyoto Protocol [
4) The strategic plan of rural development
The Strategic Plan of Rural Development 2007-2013 identified the priorities of Greece for the period 2007-2013. The National Strategy was implemented by the Program of Rural Development 2007-2013 (Hellenic Ministry of Rural Development and Food, November 2007), whose priorities are set in order to adapt to climate change. These priorities―related to forest sector―were: a) Operation of the System for the protection of forests from fires and other natural hazards, control of harmful pests and diseases that will affect forests and their productivity. It should be pointed out that the impacts of climate change push the forest ecosystems to higher altitudes and/or being replaced by others, b) Development of an information system regarding forests. Some important actions regarding adaptation to climate change have included [
- Construction of fire-preventing roads in forests where access to fire fighting means is not possible due to the lack of appropriate road systems. Construction of new roads and pathways in order to improve the forest road network.
- Construction of water supply centers (water tanks, etc.) and the indispensable works to improve the network of water provision for fire suppression.
- Removing/reducing dry biomass close to the ground or along forest roads and other regions of high fire risk.
- Tending, thinning and pruning works in coniferous forests in order to remove part of the flammable biomass.
- Construction and improvement of permanent forest fire surveillance systems.
In addition to the measures above, actions have been taken in order to increase and restore forest areas [
- Reforestation plans (using native species and local provenances) for the restoration of fire destroyed forest areas.
- Logging and removal of burnt trees (removal is not recommended in steep slopes―e.g. >30%)
- Restoration works (reforestation, soil erosion prevention, etc.) and planting of less flammable species (e.g. Cupressus sempervirens and Pinus pinea replacing P. halepensis or P. brutia, various native broadleaves).
- Soil erosion preventive works in small erosion gullies using wood, stone, concrete, wire, etc.
- Watershed management in order to minimize soil degradation and maximize water storing and construction of small dams for collection of rain water.
- Drainage works to prevent landslides in sensitive geological substrata (e.g. Pindos mt, N. Evia).
Furthermore, in the context of the First Afforestation of Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Soils, 36,612 ha had to be afforested in the period 2004-2012 [
The National institutional framework for implementation of forest policy in relation to ecosystem protection and conservation of national biodiversity (for different biodiversity issues) is briefly presented in the following table (
However, apart from the legislation, there is a need for policy initiatives towards adopting different forms of participation. Stakeholders and local communities should be trained to interact. Management bodies/agencies should be supported with experienced staff as well as involving public participation combined with scientific input [
National institutional framework | Topic |
---|---|
Law 1469/1950 | Historical sites and sites of specific natural beauty |
Law 998/1979 | Protection of Forests |
Law 1650/1986 | Protection of the Environment |
Law 204/1994 | Convention for the biological diversity |
Law 2637/1998 | Refuges of wild life |
Law 2742/1999 | Land-Planning and Sustainable Development and other provisions |
Law 3044/2002 | Setting up of Management Bodies for Natural Protected Areas |
Law 3937/2010 | Framework for the creation and functioning of management bodies of protected areas |
Law 3937/2011 | Conservation of biodiversity and other provisions |
State Resolution 80/40/1990 | Protection of plant genetic resources of the country |
State Resolution 67/1981 | Protection of native flora and the wild fauna |
State Resolution 434/30/1995 | Conservation and protection of races of local domestic animals and biotopes of landscapes |
Law 996/1971 | National Parks, aesthetic forests and nature monuments under conservation |
Law 191/1974 | Ratification of Ramsar Convention Protection of International interest wetlands |
Law 855/1978 - 1634/1984 | Ratification of Barcelona Convention Protection of Mediterranean Sea from pollution |
Law 1335/1983 | Ratification of Bern Convention, Conservation of wild life and natural environment in Europe |
Law 2719/1999 | Ratification of Bonn Convention, Conservation of migratory species of wild life |
Law 2971/2001 | Sea-shores and other provisions |
Law 743/1977 | Protection of marine environment |
Law 1269/1982 | Prevention of Sea Pollution from ships |
- Research priority areas on biodiversity and challenges for biodiversity research and related policy in Europe and Greece have been summarized. There are several approaches and tools to support forest policy implementation in Europe.
- Greece has been trying to adapt to new International, European and National conditions and policies. New biodiversity legislation has been adopted since 2012 including for the first time forest-specific measures on species and habitats’ protection.
- The new Rural Development Program (2014-2020), which is currently on the
Strategic targets for conservation of biodiversity in Greece | |
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1 | Increase a scientific knowledge for the evaluation of the status of Biodiversity |
2 | Conservation of Natural Resources and restoring of ecosystems |
3 | Organization and functioning of a National System for Protected Areas and enhancing of profits from their management |
4 | Protection and conservation of forest genetic resources |
5 | Recording and prioritarisation of direct pressures and threats for the conservation of biodiversity |
6 | Reasons responsible for the loss of biodiversity |
7 | Enhancing of Synergy Politics with the conservation of biodiversity |
8 | Conservation of landscape diversity (forest, agricultural, mixed) |
9 | Prevention and reducing the impacts on Biodiversity due to climate change |
10 | Protection of Biodiversity from invasive alien species |
11 | Enhancing of International and Bilateral cooperation for the for the protection of Biodiversity |
12 | Improvement of the quality and effectiveness of the Public administration in relation to the protection of Biodiversity |
13 | Incorporation of conservation of biodiversity into the values system of the society |
14 | Participation of the society in the conservation of biodiversity |
15 | Assessment of ecosystem services and projection of the value of biodiversity in Greece |
phase of implementation, will take into consideration the forest itself and forest-related European and National legal obligations.
- In the future, it is critical to identify the linkage between biodiversity, climate change and ecosystem services.
- The main challenges for biodiversity policy are also summarized: a) coding and revising/improving the legislation for the conservation of biodiversity, b) strengthening of the public administration for the implementation and the coordination of political measures and legislation for biodiversity, c) development of forest maps and forest inventory, completion of soil and land use maps for Greece, and d) institutional safeguarding of Natura 2000 areas.
- The future strategy for biodiversity up to 2050 will focus on prevention of destructive changes due to the loss of biodiversity (e.g. total species, keystone species, rare species, indicator species). More specifically, the following issues on biodiversity of Greece were synoptically presented and described: a) strategic targets for biodiversity, b) the pressures and threats on biodiversity in Greece, c) the National institutional framework for biodiversity, d) administration of Natural protected areas and landscapes, and e) the main future challenges.
Spanos, K., Gaitanis, D., Skouteri, A., Petrakis, P. and Meliadis, I. (2018) Implementation of Forest Policy in Greece in Relation to Biodiversity and Climate Change. Open Journal of Ecology, 8, 174-191. https://doi.org/10.4236/oje.2018.83012