Water is an indispensable resource for life. In the district of Ahomadégbé in Benin, although most of the population has access to improved water sources, in their homes, residents consume poor water quality due to microbiological contamination during transport and storage. To identify necessary actions needed to improve household drinking water quality, the present study aims to analyze the knowledge, attitudes, and practices the district of Ahomadégbé’s population regarding household drinking water treatments methods. A study was conducted, where 377 residents were interviewed using an individual questionnaire and 82 participants were selected for eight focus groups to determine the population’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices. More than 65% of the district’s population knew some methods of water treatment at home. In practice, however, they lacked the knowledge to apply the different water treatment methods and only 6.1% of the population used at least one method of water treatment at home, even if it was not always adapted. The water treatment methods residents used were Alum (KAl(SO 4)2·12 H 2O, chemical decantation method), filtration on tissues, and disinfection by boiling. Ineffective home water treatment methods, such as oil and cresol were also used. The population is aware of water contamination during transport and storage. Unfortunately, most residents surveyed do not treat water before consumption, and those who treat it, use inappropriate methods. Thus, people must be made aware of the health benefits of using effective home water treatment methods and their correct use.
Water is a natural resource whose availability in sufficient quantity and acceptable quality contributes to the maintenance of health. Although 91% coverage of drinking water has been achieved globally, and 6.6 billion people have access to improved water sources [
In the municipality of Lalo, Benin, households’ drinking water sources are boreholes, standpipes, modern wells, cisterns, and surface water [
More than 340,000 children under the age of 5, or almost 1000 per day, die each year from diarrheal diseases due to poor sanitation, poor hygiene, or unsafe water [
To limit water contamination, a process must be in place that includes the protection of water sources, the selection and implementation of drinking water treatment methods, and the proper management of risks in water distribution networks. Several interventions to improve the quality of drinking water are possible: source or collection point interventions, environmental interventions, and household-level interventions [
To ensure that population consumes water free from microbiological contamination in the district of Ahomadégbé, it is first necessary to establish a diagnostic process that identifies the actions to be taken. This study aims to analyze the knowledge, attitudes, and practices the district of Ahomadégbé’s population regarding household drinking water treatments methods.
This study was conducted in the district of Ahomadégbé, which is in the municipality of Lalo, Benin (
This is a cross-sectional study that aims to analyze knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) on home water treatment methods in the district of Ahomadégbé. The study ran from April 24, 2016 to May 8, 2016.
The questionnaires were designed to take approximately 30 minutes, including open and closed questions. The questionnaire was organized into three main sections: socio-demographic and economic characteristics; knowledge, attitudes and practices on sources of drinking water contamination; and knowledge, attitudes and practices of home water treatment methods. The questionnaire was created in French, translated into the local language Fon, and pre-tested for all translation errors. The pre-test was done before data collection in the district of Sèdjè-Dénou, municipality of Zè.
Three hundred and seventy-seven (377) people, 342 women and 35 men residing in the villages of Ahomadégbé and Adjaïgbonou, were interviewed using an individual questionnaire.
The venue was chosen to ensure accessibility for all, absolute neutrality, and a relaxed and quiet atmosphere. The date and time of the meeting considered the personal constraints of most participants. Each participant was contacted the day before the meeting date to ensure their presence and to answer any questions. Arrangements were also made to record all discussions.
An experienced sociologist moderated all focus groups. In addition to handwritten notes during the focus groups, the discussions were recorded and later transcribed and translated into French. All questions were open questions. The topics covered were: water and disease, the quality of water sources used for drinking, the sources of contamination of drinking water during transport and storage, and the measures to be taken to limit the contamination of water and home water treatment methods known and used in the district of Ahomadégbé. The privacy and confidentiality of the interviewees, and positive interactions between the individuals and the interviewer, were maintained during data collection.
Additionally, 82 participants were selected for eight (8) focus groups. Women and children were the main subjects for the following reasons:
- Women are generally responsible for household water management (watering and domestic use);
- Women were helped by children in transport, and children are in more contact with the storage container either to serve themselves or to serve adults.
However, men’s opinions were also gathered on the question of drinking water hygiene.
The groups consisted of a mix of water point users and managers to confront the behaviors and practices around the water points witnessed by the two subject groups. The number of participants in each focus group ranged from eight to twelve. Four (4) focus groups were conducted with women, two (2) with men, and two (2) with children (
Data processing from the questionnaire survey included:
- manual count and coding of the questionnaires;
- development of an input mask using SPSS version 19.0;
- entry of coded data; and,
- correction of any errors after data entry.
Data was analyzed with SPSS 19.0 and EpiInfo7 software.
The variables were described by their size and frequency.
We performed a bivariate analysis to investigate the association between the dichotomous qualitative dependent variable and the independent variables with adequate parametric tests. The association was considered significant for independent variables with a p-value less than 0.05. The focus group data (the recorded discussions) were transcribed using Word 2007 software and triangulated with the data obtained through the questionnaire survey.
The ethical protocol that authorized this study has been validated by the National Committee of Ethics for Health Research (No. 123/MS/DC/SGM/+DFR/
Villages | Categories | Total | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Men | Women | Children | ||
Adjaïgbonou | 12 | 23 | 12 | 47 |
Ahomadégbé | 07 | 19 | 09 | 35 |
Total | 19 | 42 | 21 | 82 |
CNERS/SA). Agreement with municipality’s sanitary authorities was obtained before starting data collection.
More than 90% of our sample is represented by women, 97.9% of which are of the Tchi ethnic group and 70% are peasants/fishermen. It should be noted that 57% of those surveyed have no education and 13.76% have a daily income of more than 500 FCFA. Socio-demographic and economic characteristics are summarized in
Approximately 86.5% of the participants surveyed consume water from an improved water source, 37.9% use improved water sources for other uses, and 78.2% use the same container for water transportation water for drinking and water for other uses (
About 74.3% of the participants understand that water may be contaminated between source and storage and during storage. Most of the district Ahomadégbé’s population (93.9%) cleans the transport container before taking water (
Regarding the coverage of the drinking water storage containers, 97.9% of respondents do so (
Variables | Modalities | Frequencies | Percent % | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hamlet of residence | Yovotonou (Ahomadégbé) | 60 | 15.9 | [12.4 - 20.1] | |
Tozounmè (Ahomadégbé) | 60 | 15.9 | [12.4 - 20.1] | ||
Towéta (Ahomadégbé) | 66 | 17.5 | [13.9 - 21.8] | ||
Zounkpa (Ahomadégbé) | 56 | 14.9 | [11.5 - 18.9] | ||
Kpanouhoué (Adjaïgbonou) | 119 | 31.6 | [27.0 - 36.6] | ||
Hessouhoué (Adjaïgbonou) | 7 | 1.9 | [0.8 - 4.0] | ||
Zounkpa (Adjaïgbonou) | 9 | 2.4 | [1.2 - 4.6] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
Sex | Male | 35 | 9.3 | [6.6 - 12.8] | |
Female | 342 | 90.7 | [87.3 - 93.4] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
Age | 11 - 20 | 78 | 20.7 | [16.8 - 25.2] | |
21 - 30 | 123 | 32.6 | [28.0 - 37.6] | ||
31 - 40 | 91 | 24.1 | [20.0 - 28.8] | ||
41 - 50 | 62 | 16.4 | [12.9 - 20.7] | ||
51 - 65 | 23 | 6.1 | [4.0 - 9.1] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
Marital status of the target | Married | 275 | 72.9 | [68.2 - 77.4] | |
Single | 79 | 21.0 | [17.0 - 25.5] | ||
Widower | 23 | 6.1 | [4.0 - 9.1] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
Ethnic group | Tchi (Kotafon) | 369 | 97.9 | [95.7 - 99.0] | |
Adja | 8 | 2.1 | [1.0 - 4.3] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
School level | Illiterate | 215 | 57.0 | [51.9 - 62.1] | |
Primary | 85 | 22.5 | [18.5 - 27.2] | ||
Secondary | 77 | 20.4 | [16.5 - 24.9] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
Socio-Professional Category | Farmer/Fisherman | 264 | 70.0 | [65.1 - 74.6] | |
Artisan | 20 | 5.3 | [3.4 - 8.2] | ||
Trader | 13 | 3.4 | [1.9 - 6.0] | ||
Pupil | 71 | 18.8 | [15.1 - 23.2] | ||
Other | 9 | 2.4 | [1.2 - 4.6] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
Daily income | Less than 500 F CFA | 90 | 23.9 | [19.7 - 28.6] | |
500 F CFA and more | 287 | 76.1 | [71.5 - 80.3] | ||
Total | 377 | 100.0 | |||
CI: confidence interval.
Variables | Modalities | Frequencies | Percent % | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Main sources of drinking water | Improved water sources | 326 | 86.5 | [82.6 - 89.8] |
Unimproved water sources | 51 | 13.5 | [10.3 - 17.5] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Distance between water source and houses (in meters) | 10 to 100 | 266 | 70.6 | [65.6 - 75.1] |
101 to 500 | 111 | 29.4 | [24.9 - 34.4] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Water sources used for other uses | Improved water sources | 143 | 37.9 | [33.1 - 43.1] |
Unimproved water sources | 234 | 62.1 | [56.9 - 66.9] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Use of the same container for the transport of drinking water and water for other uses | No | 82 | 21.8 | [17.8 - 26.3] |
Yes | 295 | 78.2 | [73.7 - 82.3] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Cleaning the container for transporting drinking water | No | 23 | 6.1 | [4.0 - 9.1] |
Yes | 354 | 93.9 | [90.9 - 96.0] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Transport container cover | No | 278 | 73.7 | [69.0 - 78.1] |
Yes | 99 | 26.3 | [21.9 - 31.1] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Cleaning the storage container before filling | No | 18 | 4.8 | [2.9 - 7.6] |
Yes | 359 | 95.2 | [92.4 - 97.1] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Cover of drinking water storage container | No | 8 | 2.1 | [1.0 - 4.3] |
Yes | 369 | 97.9 | [95.7 - 99.0] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Use of the cup for other purposes | No | 316 | 83.8 | [79.7 - 87.4] |
Yes | 61 | 16.2 | [12.7 - 20.4] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Shelf life of drinking water | 1 to 3 days | 254 | 67.4 | [62.4 - 72.0] |
More than 3 days | 123 | 32.6 | [28.0 - 37.6] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Washing hands before taking water | No | 293 | 77.7 | [73.2 - 81.8] |
Yes | 84 | 22.3 | [18.2 - 26.9] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Awareness of the possibility of contamination of water between source and storage and during storage | No | 97 | 25.7 | [21.5 - 30.5] |
Yes | 280 | 74.3 | [69.5 - 78.6] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 |
CI: confidence interval.
drinking cup for other purposes and 22.3% of the population washes their hands before taking drinking water in the storage container. The observation made in the field is that the same cup is used by the whole family to collect water from the storage container and then to drink. The participants know that” The water can be contaminated at the precise moment of its consumption if the cup is not clean or if the hands are dirty.” More than 32.6% of the population conserves drinking water for more than 3 days. They know that:” The duration of the storage of the water must not exceed seven (7) days;” and, “The water can be contaminated if it stays too much (1 week) in the bucket or jar. We must then replace it.”
In conclusion, the participants surveyed are aware that the lack of hygiene can favor the contamination of water during transport and during storage. But, some behavioral factors promote microbiological contamination of water.
According to
The population knows some methods, but do not know the role or at what stage of the water treatment process each method can be used.
Variables | Modalities | Frequencies | Percent % | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Knowledge of home water treatment methods | No | 131 | 34.7 | [30.0 - 39.8] |
Yes | 246 | 65.3 | [60.2 - 70.0] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Known home water treatment methods | Alum | 31 | 12.6 | [8.7 - 17.4] |
Tissue filtration | 40 | 16.3 | [11.9 - 21.5] | |
Disinfection by boiling | 59 | 24.0 | [18.8 - 29.8] | |
Aquatabs tablets | 23 | 9.3 | [6.0 - 13.7] | |
Palm branch | 6 | 2.4 | [0.9 - 5.2] | |
Lemon | 9 | 3.7 | [1.7 - 6.8] | |
Oil | 62 | 25.2 | [19.9 - 31.1] | |
Camphor | 10 | 4.1 | [2.0 - 7.3] | |
Cresol | 5 | 2.0 | [0.7 - 4.7] | |
Bleach | 1 | 0.4 | [0.0 - 2.2] | |
Total | 246* | 100.0 |
*Only those who claim to know the methods of water treatment at home. CI: confidence interval.
In practice, the participants do not know how to use these different methods of home water treatment and others use inappropriate methods.
From the analysis in
The objective of our study was to analyze the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the population of the district of Ahomadégbé regarding methods of treating drinking water at home. Non-probability sampling was used for household selection, which allowed for a representative sample. The data was collected by a combination of techniques and tools, namely questionnaire survey and focus group. Given the language barrier, we translated the questionnaire from the French language into the local language, which could be the source of some information bias. Moreover, the inability to verify some of the participants’ information could also constitute information biases.
Variables | Modalities | Frequencies | Percent % | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Use of at least one method of water treatment at home | No | 354 | 93.9 | [90.9 - 96.0] |
Yes | 23 | 6.1 | [4.0 - 9.1] | |
Total | 377 | 100.0 | ||
Methods of treatment of the water used | Alum | 6 | 26.1 | [10.2 - 48.4] |
Tissue filtration | 5 | 21.7 | [7.5 - 43.7] | |
Disinfection by boiling | 6 | 26.1 | [10.2 - 48.4] | |
Aquatabs tablets | 1 | 4.3 | [0.1 - 21.9] | |
Oil | 3 | 13.0 | [2.8 - 33.6] | |
Camphor | 2 | 8.7 | [1.1 - 28.0] | |
Total | 23* | 100.0 |
*Only those who claim to use at least one method. CI: confidence interval.
Variables | Modalities | Use of at least one method of water treatment at home | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | |||
Hamlet of residence | Yovotonou (Ahomadégbé) | 54 | 6 | 0.083** |
Tozounmè (Ahomadégbé) | 54 | 6 | ||
Towéta (Ahomadégbé) | 61 | 5 | ||
Zounkpa (Ahomadégbé) | 56 | 0 | ||
Kpanouhoué (Adjaïgbonou) | 114 | 5 | ||
Hessouhoué (Adjaïgbonou) | 6 | 1 | ||
Zounkpa (Adjaïgbonou) | 9 | 0 | ||
Sex | Male | 34 | 1 | 0.710** |
Female | 320 | 22 | ||
Age | 11 - 20 | 75 | 3 | 0.811** |
21 - 30 | 113 | 10 | ||
31 - 40 | 85 | 6 | ||
41 - 50 | 59 | 3 | ||
51 - 65 | 22 | 1 | ||
Marital status of the target | Married | 254 | 21 | 0.149** |
Single | 77 | 2 | ||
Widower | 23 | 0 | ||
Ethnic group | Tchi (Kotafon) | 347 | 22 | 0.399** |
Adja | 7 | 1 | ||
School level | Illiterate | 206 | 9 | 0.053** |
Primary | 75 | 10 | ||
Secondary | 73 | 4 | ||
Socio-Professional Category | Farmer/Fisherman | 245 | 19 | 0.476** |
Artisan | 19 | 1 | ||
Trader | 13 | 0 | ||
Pupil | 69 | 2 | ||
Other | 8 | 1 | ||
Daily income | Less than 500 F CFA | 88 | 2 | 0.126** |
500 F CFA and more | 266 | 21 | ||
Main sources of drinking water | Improved water sources | 303 | 23 | 0.056** |
Unimproved water sources | 51 | 0 | ||
Awareness of the possibility of contamination of water between source and storage and during storage | No | 88 | 9 | 0.129* |
Yes | 266 | 14 | ||
Knowledge of home water treatment methods | No | 131 | 0 | 0.0001** |
Yes | 223 | 23 |
*Chi 2 test. **Fisher test.
In the district of Ahomadégbé, only 37.9% of the participants use improved water sources for uses other than drinking mainly because of repeated failures of the only improved water source in the village of Adjaïgbonou and the necessity of villagers to cross the Couffo River in the hamlet of Tozounmè before accessing an improved water source .Distance is therefore a factor that determines the choice of water source used for drinking and for other uses in this borough. The easy access to a water source is assessed in relation to the distance between the residence and the supply point, and the time set to get water [
Nearly 98% of the population covers storage containers for drinking water. In Ahomadégbé, 67.4% of the population retains drinking water for one to three days. This result is different from that of Lalanne. In the province of Ganzourgou in Burkina Faso, 25% of the population gets their supplies twice a day and 75% collect water once a day [
In terms of knowledge of home water treatment methods, 65.3% of the population is familiar with home water treatment methods. This result is superior to that of Lalanne, who found that 48% of participants have knowledge of home water treatment methods [
In practice, 93.9% of the population does not treat drinking water. In the province of Ganzourgou, 90% of the participants do not treat the water before its consumption because the boreholes are of good water quality and thus treatment is unnecessary [
Methods like cresol, camphor, and oil are also used. These results corroborate those of Akowanou et al. who found that in the Mono and Couffo departments, people use oil and crushed palm leaves as home water treatment methods [
In general, the most common home water treatment methods used in rural Benin are boiling, adding chlorine, filtration (tissue, ceramic filter or some other filter), and solar disinfection [
Our study of the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of the population in the district of Ahomadégbé regarding home water treatment methods revealed that the population is aware of water contamination during transportation and storage. Unfortunately, only 6.1% of the participants surveyed use at least one water treatment method, but use water treatment methods improperly. This study provides basic information for any intervention to improve the quality of home water in this district.
We are very grateful to the people of the district of Lalo and the CDTUB health professionals. We are thankful to the Anesvad Foundation for partially supporting the field work.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Amoukpo, H., Bachirou, Z.S., Diez, G., Akuesson, L., Lanignan, R., Degnonvi, H., Barogui, Y., Boni, G., Boko, M. and Johnson, R.C. (2018) Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of the Population of the District of Ahomadégbé (Municipality of Lalo) in Benin on Methods of Water Treatment at Home. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 10, 251-265. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2018.103015