In this paper, we present an analysis of attenuation for UV-C radiation ( ) as a function of the altitude z ( ) by calculating the interaction ratio between the UV-C radiation and the molecular species susceptible of interact with UV-C radiation. The Rayleigh scattering spectral cross sections were calculated, the UV-C spectral cross sections of the species susceptible of interact with UV-C radiation and the UV extraterrestrial ( ETR) solar spectrum were standardized with wavelength steps of 1 nm, and The International Standard Atmosphere model (ISO 1972) was adapted to calculate the molecular density. These data were utilized to calculate the photodissociation and Rayleigh scattering ratios as a function of the altitude and to determine to what measure the photodissociation and the Rayleigh diffusion were determinants of the attenuation of UV-C radiation. It became clear that the photo dissociation of O 2 is the primordial mechanism of attenuation for the UV-C radiation, but the Rayleigh diffusion appears like a mechanism that encreases the photon flux, raising the performance of the O 2 photodissociation. The attenuation capacities of N 2O, CO 2 and water vapor (H 2O) over the UV-C radiation are all similar, although smaller (less than 0.6%), and this is due to their low concentration. The O 3, has the theoretical greater attenuation capacity, but it is found in mid-range altitudes ( ), where the residual UV-C photons has almost vanished by O 2 photo dissociation or Rayleigh diffusion, so the real effect over the UV-C attenuation is minimum.
It is well known that UV-C radiation does not reach the surface of the Earth. However, there is no precise knowledge about its spectral attenuation.
The attenuation of UV radiation, in general, is the result of the interaction of the photons with the species or molecules that are susceptible to interact. The photons extinguish themselves upon reacting, transferring their energy to the molecules either causing the breaking of their molecular bonds or the dissociation of the molecule. Due to its nature, this type of interaction is called photodissociation.
The spectral photodissociation ratio R λ ( z ) can be defined as the number of molecular photodissociation produced by the solar radiation of each wavelength λ at any altitude in the atmosphere. This must be proportional to the spectral photon flow ϕ λ ( z ) and to the molecular density N ( z ) of each chemical species at z altitude
R λ ( z ) = ϕ λ ( z ) N ( z ) σ λ (1)
σ λ known as the cross section, represents the probability of reacting or of molecular photodissociation which is specific to each wavelength λ for each molecular species.
The total photodissociation ratio at each altitude z is the integral of the spectral photodissociation ratio
R ( z ) = ∫ R λ ( z ) d λ = ∫ ϕ λ ( z ) N ( z ) σ λ d λ (2)
The attenuation of the residual spectral photon flux at each altitude z can be calculated by subtracting the number of reactions of photodissociation from the spectral photon flux at the altitude z + 1
ϕ λ ( z ) = ϕ λ ( z + 1 ) − R ( z + 1 ) (3)
The initial spectral photon flux ϕ 0 λ can be calculated from the spectral irradiance I 0 λ received at the top of the atmosphere or ETR spectrum
ϕ 0 λ = I 0 λ E λ (4)
where, E λ = h c λ , is the photon energy, h the Planck constant and c the
speed light in vacuum.
The molecular density at altitude can be expressed in terms of the pressure and the average temperature with the equation
N ( z ) = P ( z ) N A M R T ( z ) (5)
where, N A = 6.0221415 × 10 23 molecules / mol is Avogadro’s number, M = 28.96644 × 10 − 3 kg / mol is the air molecular weight at TP standard and R is the specific gas constant R = 287.05 J / K ⋅ kg .
A priori, one can assume, in accordance with hydrostatic law, that the decrease of the pressure with the altitude is exponential in nature; nevertheless, because of photodissociation reactions, layers in the atmosphere with different temperature gradients λ n alternate. The temperature in the stratosphere, for example, can be characterized through three temperature gradients―the lower one positive, the highest one negative, and an isothermal layer in between―until reaching the mesopause.
The temperature gradients λ n have an approximately linear nature in each layer n of the atmosphere
d T d z = λ n (6)
Through integration, the temperature inside the layer n can be expressed as
T ( z ) = T n + λ n ( z − z n )
where T n y z n are the temperature and altitude base of each layer.
According to The International Standard Atmosphere, between 0 and 100 km the standard atmosphere is comprised of 8 layers [
For a layer with gradient λ n ≠ 0 , the molecular density is given by
N ( z ) = N A M P n R T n ( 1 + λ n ( z − z n ) T n ) − g λ n R − 1 (8)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
While for one isothermal layer λ n = 0 , or one without a temperature gradient the molecular density is given by
N ( z ) = N A M P n R T n e − g T n R ( z − z n ) (9)
The species susceptible to reacting with UV-C radiation are O2, O3, CO2, H2O and N2O. The corresponding cross sections are consulted in The MPI-Mainz UV/VIS Spectral Atlas [
The first claim of this paper is to determine to which measure these molecular species are determinant in the attenuation of the UV-C radiation. The region for the study of the attenuation of UV-C radiation is the homosphere ( 0 ≤ z ≤ 100 km ) . The homosphere―the region in which the composition of air and the molecular weight are approximately constant―contains 99.79% of the total mass reported in the atmosphere, and it is also the region where the molecular species susceptible to reacting with UV-C radiation reside.
In this paper, the homosphere is discretized in 100 m steps and the attenuation of UV-C radiation has been restricted to the perpendicular diffusion towards the surface of the Earth.
The Gueymard extraterrestrial (ETR) spectrum I 0 λ ( W / m 2 ⋅ nm ) was used, due to it being the only one found in literature that begins in 0.5 nm. The Gueymard spectrum covers the spectral region from 0.5 nm to 280 nm in 1 nm steps, 280 to 400 nm in 0.5 nm steps, from 400 nm to 1705 nm in 1 nm steps, 5 nm steps from 1705 nm to 4000 nm, and variable steps beyond 4000 nm [
The integral of the Gueymard spectrum is equal to 1366.1521372347 W/m2, which is in the same order as the Solar Constant I 0 = 1366.1 W / m 2 [
By the Gueymard spectrum having variable wavelength steps, in this paper the spectrum was standardized with wavelength steps of 1 nm centered on multiples of 0.5 nm. The error propagated by this standardization was evaluated by comparing the integrals of the original and the homologated spectrums. The difference between the original integral of UV-C irradiance and the standardized integral of UV-C irradiance was 0.132 W/m2, which equals a relative error of 0.1272%.
In
The cross section of O2 (black line) extends until 250 nm and given its concentration in the atmosphere (0.20953) it is one of the most determinant species in the attenuation of the UV-C radiation between 0 and 244 nm.
Under 150 nm, the most important cross sections are those of N2O and CO2 (magenta and blue line). Nevertheless, the capacity for attenuation of these species cannot be too important, due to their low concentrations in the atmosphere
(fractions 3.15 × 10−7 and 4 × 10−4 respectively) and because in this region the solar ETR irradiance is only 0.01522 W/m2 (0.14% of UV-C irradiance) (See
The water vapor cross sections (navy line) are important up until 200 nm, but given their relatively reduced concentration in the troposphere, they also cannot have an important attenuation capacity for the UV-C radiation.
The ozone, for its part (red line), is the only species whose cross sections are important between 200 nm and 300 nm, the region of the spectrum in which the ETR solar irradiance is in the range of 10 W/m2; although its concentration is relatively reduced (3.5 × 10−7), the ozone must play a significant role in the attenuation of the UV-C radiation.
Another phenomenon that must influence the attenuation of the radiation UV-C is the Rayleigh scattering or the Rayleigh diffusion.
The Rayleigh scattering theory was proposed at the end of XIX century by John William Strutt (British physicist known like Lord Rayleigh). Using Electromagnetic Theory Rayleigh assumed that the molecules of the air, at being pushed into their excited state by the electromagnetic radiation of the sun, are converted into oscillating dipoles that re-emit the radiation in 4 π esteroradians.
The expression for the Rayleigh scattering cross section σ R for standard air −790 mm Hg, 15°C and containing 300 ppm CO2 is the Penndorf equation [
σ R ( λ ) = 24 π 3 ( n s 2 − 1 ) 2 λ 4 N s 2 ( n s 2 − 2 ) 2 ( 6 + 3 δ 6 − 7 δ ) (10)
where n s is the refractive index of air, N s = 2.54743 × 10 19 cm − 3 is the air
molecular standard density, F D = ( 6 + 3 δ 6 − 7 δ ) is the depolarization term or the
King factor and δ is the depolarization factor which describes the effect of molecular anisotropy.
For the refractive index n s , Peck and Reeder [
( n s − 1 ) ( 300 ) × 10 8 = 8060.51 + 2480990 132.274 − 1 λ 2 + 17455.7 39.32957 − 1 λ 2 (11)
Scaling for the desired CO2 concentration in ppm
( n s − 1 ) ( CO 2 ) = ( n s − 1 ) ( 300 ) ( 1 + 0.54 ( CO 2 − 0.0003 ) ) (12)
The King factor depends on air composition and wavelength radiation. According to Bates [
F D = 78.084 F ( N 2 ) + 20.946 F ( O 2 ) + 0.934 + 1.15 × C CO 2 78.084 + 20.946 + 0.934 + C CO 2 (13)
where
F ( N 2 ) = 1.034 + 3.17 × 10 − 4 ( 1 λ 2 ) (14a)
F ( O 2 ) = 1.096 + 1.385 × 10 − 3 ( 1 λ 2 ) + 1.448 × 10 − 4 ( 1 λ 4 ) (14b)
F ( Ar ) = 1 (14c)
F ( CO 2 ) = 1.15 (14d)
In
The spectral cross sections available in literature present important differences between authors and no one author has uniform wavelength steps. It is known that the cross sections vary with temperature, but it was not possible to take into account this dependence, seeing as no data exists that permits taking the gamma temperatures that exist in the atmosphere. The majority of the cross sections used in this work were measured at 298 K, with exceptions of the higher part of the spectrum of O2, whose cross sections were measured at 202 and 243 K, and
λ ( μm ) | σ R ( λ ) Penndorf [ | σ R ( λ ) Bodhaine [ | σ R ( λ ) Bucholtz [ | σ R ( λ ) CO 2 = 360 ppm | σ R ( λ ) CO 2 = 380 pp | σ R ( λ ) CO 2 = 400 ppm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.250 | 1.259E−25 | 1.2610E−25 | 1.259E−25 | 1.25707E−25 | 1.25707E−25 | 1.25707E−25 |
0.300 | 5.642E−26 | 5.6525E−26 | 5.642E−26 | 5.64514E−26 | 5.64515E−26 | 5.64516E−26 |
0.400 | 1.689E−26 | 1.6738E−26 | 1.673E−26 | 1.67498E−26 | 1.67498E−26 | 1.67498E−26 |
the cross sections of CO2 which were measured at 310 K.
In the case of the ozone, values for the cross sections which are under 110 nm were not found. Nevertheless, under this wavelength the Irradiance is equal to only 0.00517 W/m2, in such a way that the error generated due to the omission of this region must be very small. In the case of the Rayleigh scattering cross section the only reliable values are those calculated for wavelength λ > 200 nm , with this in mind the Rayleigh scattering for this wavelength was omitted.
The ETR solar spectrum and the cross sections were standardized into wavelengths through interpolation and/or extrapolation and into wavelength steps of 1 nm were situated values of 0.5 nm. The error generated was evaluated by comparing the integral of the original and homologated spectrums. The relative differences between the integrals under the curve from the reported cross sections and the standardized cross sections were: in the case of O2: 9.818 × 10−5, in the case of the O3: −0.01599; in the case of CO2: 0.040026, in the case of N2O: 5.3782 × 10−5, and in the case of H2O: 0.00243.
The cross sections of O2 were utilized: Brion [
In
In
Partial conclusion, the O2 is not the only species that prevents the UV-C radiation from reaching the surface of the Earth.
In
the air molecules is presented as a function of the altitude while taking into consideration exclusively the Rayleigh Diffusion as the only mechanism for the attenuation of the UV-C radiation. In
If the Rayleigh Diffusion was the only process of attenuation for the UV-C radiation, an irradiance equal to 1.65 W/m2 would manage to reach the surface of the Earth. Nevertheless, this would be sufficient enough to attenuate 85% of the UV-C radiation.
In
In
ozone cross sections are important for the upper section of the UV-C range (see
In
by the Rayleigh diffusion and by the O3.
To simulate the actions of the ozone, a profile of the concentration of the columns of the ozone was taken randomly, characteristic of a region with a value of 238 DU. In fact, it is the ozone that completes the elimination of the residual 0.14 W/m2 of the photodissociation of O2.
On the other hand, the UV-B range, at ground level ( z = 0 ) only leaves 3.0529 W/m2 of the ETR UV-B irradiance (18.6707 W/m2); meanwhile the UV-A irradiance only 23.3126 W/m2 at ground level of the ETR UV-A irradiance (83.584 W/m2). This is a good approximation of what goes on.
Although under the wavelength of 150 nm the cross sections of these molecular species are elevated (
Combining the air’s Rayleigh diffusion and photodissociation of O2, the profile of dissociations of O2 as a function of the altitude was obtained to describe the attenuation of the UV-C radiation in the atmosphere. This method demonstrates that the dissociations of O2 occur in two regions of the atmosphere. In this altitude, 18% of the UV-C radiation is attenuated through the photodissociation produced by photons of high energy ( λ ≤ 240 nm ). These photodissociations contribute to the elevation in the temperature of the lower part of the ionosphere, but at these altitudes the liberated atoms of oxygen don’t produce molecules from the ozone, which is succinctly due to the low molecular density of O2. The region where the largest attenuation of the UV-C radiation is produced is distributed between the troposphere and the stratosphere, having maximum grounds for attenuation at 18 km.
The method is not enough achieved because the absence of cross section for the span of temperatures in the atmosphere. Even so it explains why the UV-C doesn’t arrive to the Earth surface givens relevance to the Rayleigh diffusion like a mechanism that encreases the photon flux, raising the performance of the O2 photodissociation.
The profile of the photodissociation ratio of O2 is similar to the conditions for distribution of O3 in the atmosphere. This permits the explanation that the ozone resides in the stratosphere because that is where the majority of the photodissociation ratio of O2 exists.
Additionally, this paper permits the emphasis that not only the photodissociation of O3 is what contributes to the generation of the temperature gradient in the stratosphere. In fact, the number of photodissociation of O2 is four times the number of photodissociation of O3. This is meanwhile the photodissociation ratio of O2 of one column of the atmosphere about 1 cm2 from the surface is
R T ( O 2 ) = ∫ R O 2 ( z ) d z = 1.48 × 10 16 cm − 2 ⋅ s − 1
The total number of the photodissociation of O3 is
R T ( O 3 ) = ∫ R O 3 ( z ) d z = 3.64 × 10 15 cm − 2 ⋅ s − 1
On the other hand, given that 1 DU = 3.64 × 10 15 O 3 molecules per cm2 R T ( O 3 ) implies the destruction of 0.135 DU of O3 per second.
Pinedo-Vega, J.L., Ríos-Martínez, C., Navarro-Solís, D.J., Dávila-Rangel, J.I., Mireles-García, F., Saucedo-Anaya, S.A., Manzanares-Acuña, E. and Badillo-Almaraz, V. (2017) Attenuation of UV-C Solar Radiation as a Function of Altitude (0 ≤ z ≤ 100 km): Rayleigh Diffusion and Photo Dissociation of O2 Influence. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 7, 540-553. https://doi.org/10.4236/acs.2017.74039