Family service professionals, child development providers, and school teachers who work with American-born Chinese children of reverse-migration face great challenges especially when the specific needs of these children and their immigrant families are unknown to them. This study explored the experiences and perspectives of service providers on the possible developmental impacts of reverse-migration separation on returning children of Chinese immigrant families in New York City. Focus groups and key informant interviews were conducted with 20 healthcare providers, school teachers, social workers, and child and family service practitioners. Thematic analysis approach was used to analyze and encode qualitative information and to discover patterns and themes. The analytical process consisted of data immersion, taking notes, sorting data into codes, and comparing the themes across interviews. Findings revealed specific themes that included : 1) provider’s observations of child’s attachment, health, learning, and behavioral issues; 2) provider’s views concerning parenting methods, skills, and challenges; and 3) suggestions for support and resources for Chinese immigrant families. Implications for social policy, intervention services, and future research on this needy immigrant population were discussed. Knowledge derived from this study is instrumental in raising awareness, broadening knowledge base, and increasing effectiveness among service professionals who serve this population.
As the largest Asian group in New York City, the Chinese American population had grown from 458,586 in 2008 to 506,768 in 2011, at a rapid 10.5% rate of increase, with the majority of them (71%) being foreign born [
Family separation as a result of migration is not a new social phenomenon. Across ethnic groups, adult immigrants in search for economic opportunities often leave their family behind in their home country [
Part of the fastest-growing Chinese-American group in the U.S., many Fujianese immigrants enter this country through illegal means and owe large debts to those who arrange for their arrival [
For families with working parents, having children cared for by grandparents is a very common practice in China [
The study by Beauchaine et al. [
The researcher recently completed a qualitative study to explore the lived experiences of Chinese immigrant families that went through prolonged separation and reunification, and understand their attitudes, perceptions, and reactions to the separation and reunification process [
To date, there is no systematic study that has explored the experiences of these service providers. This study is the first to elicit the experiences of these service providers and to gain better understanding from the perspectives of service providers on the possible developmental impacts of reverse-migration separation on returning children of Chinese immigrant families. The study also explored possible interventions, methods, services, or practical tools that service providers could use to help these vulnerable families. It is hoped that this research will add to the much needed knowledge and understanding on specific needs of Chinese immigrant families and lead to the development of critical policy questions and practical tools for child care, school, health and mental health providers to early identify the needs of these vulnerable families and strengthen their abilities to cope with these challenges.
This study used a qualitative approach to understand the participants’ experiences as rigorously and detailed as possible and to identify concepts and themes that emerged from interview data [
An interview guide (see Appendix 1) was designed to include open-ended semi-structured questions and where necessary “probes” or follow-up questions were used to elicit responses and increase richness of responses [
This study used a purposive sampling [
Field ID | Age | Gender | Profession | Yrs in field | Services the organization provides | Years working w/ Chinese |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F1 | 23 | Female | Case Planner | 2 | Preventative services, home visits, and referrals | 1 - 5 |
S1 | 29 | Female | Social Worker | 1.5 | Case management and care coordination | 1 - 5 |
PC1 | 60 | Female | Parent Coordinator | 12 | Liaise between school and parents; work with parents | 11 - 15 |
GC1 | 46 | Female | Guidance Counselor | 17 | Help child adjust to school setting, address misbehavior, work with teachers with child’s behaviors. | 16 - 20 |
F2 | 24 | Female | Family services coordinator | 7 - 8 | Early childhood, youth, adult and family, senior services. | 1 - 5 |
S2 | 55 | Female | Pediatric Social Worker | 20 | Comprehensive medical and mental health hospital with outpatient clinics. | over 20 |
F3 | 35 | Female | Program Director | 12 | Social services: home visits, classroom experience for children 0 - 5 years old | 6 - 10 |
S3 | 32 | Female | Social worker | 8 | Senior housing, case management, individual counseling, home visits. | 11 - 15 |
S4 | 31 | Female | Social Worker | 7 | Discharge planning, group therapy, individual and family therapy | 6 - 10 |
S5 | 27 | Female | Social Worker | 2 | Mental health counseling, social services, immigrant services | 1 - 5 |
S6 | 35 | Female | Social Worker | 4 | Social Services & mental health | 1 - 5 |
P1 | 51 | Female | Pediatrician | 20 | Health Center Medical services | 16 - 20 |
T1 | 39 | Female | Teacher | 15 | Elementary School | 16 - 20 |
T2 | 35 | Female | Teacher | 8 | Elementary School | 11 - 15 |
T3 | 45 | Female | ESL Teacher | 12 | Elementary School | 11 - 15 |
T4 | 29 | Female | Special Ed Teacher | 3 | Elementary School | 1 - 5 |
T5 | 55 | Female | ESL Teacher | 20 | Elementary School | over 20 |
O1 | 37 | Female | Non-profit management | 15 | Policy, advocacy, research, capacity building, financial help | 11 - 15 |
O2 | 53 | Female | Health Care Admin | 25 | Public Health, Human Services, Community Engagement | over 20 |
P2 | 40 | Female | Pediatrician | 14 | Medical, mental health, social work | 11 - 15 |
immigrant families. Thirty percent of participants had worked with Chinese immigrant families within 1 to 5 years and 30% had more than 16 years. These participants have worked in diverse practice fields with different professional backgrounds including health and mental health, teaching, guidance counseling, social work, and child and family service administration and advocacy.
Narrative data from individual interviews and focus groups was studied qualitatively using technical procedures based on the thematic analysis approach [
Several studies have shown that American-born children who were raised in China from infancy and reunited with their parents years later experienced adjustment and attachment issues upon their return [
Many of the Chinese families seen by provider participants in this study were unaware and unprepared for health related issues due to prolonged separation. A pediatrician who worked with Chinese immigrant families for more than 15 years summarized succinctly a wide range of health issues these children might have: prescriptions, access to preventive screening, breastfeeding, overfeeding, risk of obesity and overweight, and dental hygiene.
Breastfeeding is an issue because parents do not breastfeed the babies who will be sent back home shortly or else it’ll be hard to stop lactation... When the child gets sick in China, the parents ask if we could give prescription to treat the child. We cannot do so. I am not even sure what the screening process is in China if the child has developmental delays. They may only treat the child for developmental delays after it becomes a medical problem… Grandparents spoil the grandchildren and they have trouble setting limits on what their grandchildren eat. If they allow the child to have a lot of fast food, it may lead to childhood obesity… Another big problem is a lack of preventive dental care in China. Kids from China come back with really bad cavities. Dentists [in China] don’t talk to families about dental hygiene or flossing (P2).
In traditional Chinese culture, providing food is an expression of love. Grandparents in China tend to overfeed the grandchildren and this often results in poor eating habits, putting the children at risk of obesity. A health care administrator noted, “The child was spoiled by grandparents, were piggybacked, were allowed to eat whatever they wanted, and not disciplined in manners. Grandparents thought that giving the grandchild whatever they wanted was the best way to raise them.”
Children who were raised in China did not attend daycare or pre-schools in the U.S. They experienced a range of learning and educational challenges when they returned to the U.S. to attend elementary school. In this study, five teachers, one guidance counselor, and one parent coordinator who worked at an elementary school were interviewed. They reported that many of these children had the issues that include: 1) delays in learning; 2) delays in language development and expression; and 3) behavioral difficulties.
In China, children seemed to have “normal” language skills and when they came back to the United States, they became withdrawn…One could tell that the child had a lot of delays. Such delays are detected through assessing their language and behavior. There were also learning delays. When we could not read (understand) the child, we could not provide them with the right intervention. (F3) If grandma were illiterate, she wouldn’t see the need for the child to learn especially if the child is going back to America. So the opportunity for reading and language development in early childhood was lacking. If the grandparents could read, they could read to the child. Unfortunately in rural areas of China, childrearing means only feeding the child. (T5)
The child’s ability to follow class routine and teacher instruction is crucial to learning and cognitive development. For these children, learning has been affected by their behavior in classroom settings. A guidance counselor noted that these children did not listen and were attention seeking and insecure. “The girl was very confused about who her parents were. She was angry and upset but was not able to express her feeling. She was emotional and did not listen to her parents. She felt insecure… If the child felt loved, she would listen to the parents… When the teachers asked the parents to teach the child proper behavior, the parents ask the teachers instead how to get the child listen to them.” Because of difficulties in staying focused in class, they also exhibited social and emotional issues such as aggression, defiant behavior, or anxiety. One social worker commented, “A child separated from parents for a few years. The child came back crying. If the child had good language skills, the child could express his or her feeling. I had seen kids who were very aggressive... I also have seen kids who were very anxious, seemed lost, and did not know what was going on. When the plane arrived at JFK, the child said to the mom, ‘Why am I here? This is not my home.’” Some participants noted that children who returned lack self-care ability possibly because their grandparents spoiled them. A guidance counselor commented, “The child is not very independent after coming back… The child is self-centered and would wait for people to feed him. The teachers cannot cater to just one child.”
Raising a child with unmet emotional needs, poor behavioral regulation and learning needs and in a stressful context such as poverty, parental stress, and limited social support may interfere with parents’ abilities to respond in constructive ways to their children’s ever-changing development [
Provider participants indicated that when Chinese immigrant parents experienced difficulties in child discipline, they tended to think that the problems lied in the child only. They were often unaware of how their own parenting methods might affect the child and what changes they could make to become effective parents. A social worker commented, “When parents sought counseling, they asked, ‘What is wrong with my child?’ They did not ask, ‘What have I done wrong?’ These parents focus on the child being the problem… they did not realize that they too needed to change and adjust…They only blamed the child for not cooperating.” A guidance counselor shared her frustration when she worked with a parent on addressing the child’s academic and behavioral issues, “A father bluntly said that it was the school’s responsibility to take care of child during school hours and that he should not be bothered for any problems the child has in school.” An administrator of a child advocacy agency commented that many parents did not recognize the importance of promoting child development, “I am not sure if parents know that early childhood development affects later development. This is not the topic being talked about in the Chinese culture.” Another provider participant observed that Chinese parents tended to focus on physical needs of their children more than their social and emotional development. They also had limited knowledge of available social services and did not know how to access them when needed.
Many of these families were recent immigrants and they tended to be skeptical about seeking help for fear of revealing themselves and being “tracked by the government”. A pediatrician commented, “We advise them to see social workers and seek help but there is a stigma to seeking services… Parents are also concerned about leaving a permanent record that can be tracked by the government. Sometimes it takes a year or two to persuade families to get services… In regards to home visits, they don’t like the idea of someone coming to their house.” This observation affirmed the finding from the literature that because of fear of legal involvement, many immigrants (especially undocumented) avoid accessing resources and services from government agencies [
While there is much child development literature on the effects of prolonged separation on attachment and psychological development of children, there are limited studies on what services these families need to help them adjust during the reunification period. Provider participants in this study had many years of practice experience working with Chinese immigrant families. Seventy percent of participants had worked with Chinese families for six years of more and were very knowledgeable about resources and support that was available for Chinese immigrant families. Some participants observed that Chinese parents often lived in overcrowded quarters and had harsh working conditions, which led to high stress level. They empathized that Chinese parents had guilt feelings toward their children who had adjustment issues upon their return to the U.S. A social service agency director commented, “When parents needed to address their child’s behaviors, they felt very hopeless, helpless, and depressed. In parenting workshops, these parents did not want to share. If parents could not even meet their own needs, it would be hard for them to address the child’s needs.”
Provider participants were asked what services they thought would be helpful to parents and children who just reunited. They believed that these families would benefit from parenting skills workshops that addressed topics such as parent-child relationship, communication skills, and child development. A case planner of a child preventative service agency emphasized the needs of Chinese parents to rebuild their relationship with the child who just returned after prolonged family separation. Her employment agency offers parenting skills class for parents who have young children with specific needs and provides individual and family counseling to teach parents how to build positive relationship with children. A social worker with many years of practice experience in individual and family counseling suggested that Chinese parents should be consistent in disciplining the child and in setting limits. “They need to strike a balance between not being too lenient or too harsh. In addition to focusing on problems, they should also focus on the strengths of the child.”
On the issues of parents focusing on the problems of the child but being unaware of their own inadequacy in parenting skills, engaging these parents in workshops and skills training activities to raise their awareness on underlying parent-child relationship issue is important. A social worker observed, “The more reluctant the parents are to change, the more difficult to change their mindset. What you see on the child is a reflection of the parents… These parents support their child by working really hard, but when the child exhibits behavioral problems, they ask, ‘This is how you pay me back?’ Parents blame the child for not cooperating with the family after the reunion. They said they made much sacrifice by sending their child away.”
A pediatrician pointed out that parenting tool kits with useful information to the parents might be helpful. “When the child reunited with his/her parents, the parents needed to bond with the child…It would be helpful if we could provide a parenting toolkit with practical tips to the parents. The parenting toolkit could include information on how to bond with the child who just returned, rebuilding relationship, safety issues, discipline, and limit setting.” Other participants found parent support groups to be helpful especially for parents who were socially isolated. Support groups foster mutual support and peer counseling among these immigrant parents. A participant put it, “Support groups would be helpful as families could share their experiences and learn from each other and offer mutual support. We should continue to support these families who got their children back from China so that they can advise each other what to do.”
Many Chinese immigrant families served by these providers shared a number of social adversity factors that might impact on parent-child relationship and parenting outcomes [
A couple of participants indicted that early childhood education is essential and if possible reaching out to Chinese mothers during their pregnancy and providing them with information and resources on child development would be helpful for them.
We need to do more preventive work for pregnant moms… We ask families what they think is going to happen [after prolonged family separation]. The earlier we talk to these families about the pros and cons of sending children back to China the better. We can help parents understand how the child felt when they were sent away and prepare the parents on what adjustments to expect upon reunification. (F3) Agencies can outreach to moms who are pregnant or have a young child and provide recommendation to these parents on child development. For example, children in China could be taught how to use fork and spoon so they might adapt quicker after reunification. If the child had attended school in China, it would be easier for the child to follow class routine and teacher instruction in the U.S. (GC1)
The present study explored the experiences and perspectives of service providers who worked with returning children of Chinese immigrant families and assessed the possible developmental impacts of reverse-migration separation on these children. “These families have very little social and family support and are more comfortable with grandparents taking care of kids… For them, there are only “bad” options. Having your parents take care of your child is not the best option but better than hiring a babysitter.” This comment from a social worker elucidates the fact that the choice Chinese immigrant parents made to be separated from their newborns is not entirely the “best” or “voluntary” decision. Kwong and Yu [
As a significant segment of Chinese immigrant parents continue to practice reverse-migration separation, many American-born children of Chinese immigrants are not being raised by their birth parents during the formative years of his or her life. Service providers in this study reaffirmed a typical socio-demographic profile of the parents as suggested in the literature [
Child care provided by grandparents for their grandchildren is a very common practice among Asian communities in the U.S. [
Pediatricians, teachers, and a guidance counselor included in this study had many years of experience working with Chinese immigrant families. They observed a range of other critical developmental issues related to or exacerbated by reverse-migration separation namely health concerns, learning, language development, and school behaviors. Interviews with this subgroup of provider participants showed that there seemed to be a link between their views of reverse-migration phenomenon and of their perceived role and how they responded to the needs and issues of returning children of Chinese immigrant families. They tended to focus primarily on medical, language, and learning needs of these returning children and shared much frustration about working with immigrant parents to address such needs. They appeared to show less understanding of the possible role of socioeconomic, cultural, or family related factors that might influence the reverse-migration practice of Chinese immigrant families. Because of such a narrow focus of a particular aspect of the child development, both the psychosocial and emotional needs of the child and the parent would be overlooked by these participants, or not seen as part of their role. Thus if these providers think their role is just within the medical or educational domain, they may fail to recognize the complex interaction between physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects of child development and are also less aware of the range of services that these children and parents need. It should be noted that service providers routinely deal with problems, issues, and challenges presented by Chinese immigrant families, thus they are more eager to discuss about problems and negative outcomes. Certainly not all Chinese immigrants will experience the negative consequences of reverse-migration separation nor encounter issues as noted by service providers. Understanding these immigrants’ experiences from a strengths-based perspective will provide service providers with a wealth of information on how to work more successfully with these families at reunification. Recognizing and mobilizing family strengths and supporting their needs may help professionals develop more effective strategies to engage these vulnerable families to access immediate services and interventions.
Findings in this study have several implications for social policy, intervention services, and future research of this hard-to-reach immigrant population. On the social policy change level, high quality and affordable child care services need to be made available to immigrant families so that they will not have the need to send their infants overseas for child care. The issue of affordable day care services may be addressed by linking community and economic planning with the needs of residents, with a focus of building more day care facilities within each community. Such efforts will require policy foresight, long-term planning, and committed investments in the health and wellbeing of immigrant populations.
In 2011, an estimated 280,000 unauthorized immigrants living in the United States were from China [
In terms of intervention services, provider participants in this study suggested that more programs such as concrete services, referrals for social services, and child care supports should be provided to these families. Different types of services would be helpful for Chinese immigrant families at different stages of the separation or reunification process. Informational sessions on preventive services and early childhood education will be particularly beneficial for pregnant women who are considering sending their child to China. For parents who have reunified with their children, parenting workshops and communication skills training will better prepare them for the challenges of adjustment. At the same time, counseling support to children and their parents should be made available to help families where children express any social, emotional, behavioral, language, or learning difficulties. Support groups will provide a forum for parents to share their experience and concerns with each other and to foster mutual support and learning.
As for areas for future research, while this study with service providers shed some light on a number of issues faced by families who practiced reverse-migra- tion separation-a subject matter that was largely understudied?there still exists a need for more systematic studies employing longitudinal study designs and standardized measures. Such studies would help assess both short-term and long-term psychosocial and mental health outcomes on children who went through prolonged separation. Standardized tests and assessments could be employed to study psychosocial and mental health issues, and life stress experienced by these immigrant families. In-depth assessments of their child care, schooling, and health needs are needed to help develop intervention strategies that are appropriate for this population.
There are a number of limitations to this study. First of all, the sample size used in the study was small. The small sample size means the findings of the study may not be generalizable to a large community of service providers who have worked with Chinese immigrant families that went through prolonged separation and reunification. Second, participants were self-selected to participate in the study. Although participants came from diverse professional backgrounds such as health and mental health, education and guidance, social work, child and family practice and advocacy, this sample is non-representative as the sampling design is meant to include the breadth of perspectives represented in diverse practice fields rather than aiming at generalizing to the larger population of service providers. These service providers contribute their valuable and distinct perspectives on this phenomenon. However, they may fail to recognize the underlying complex interrelated issues facing these immigrants who went through prolonged separation and reunification. In addition, data collected in this study was based solely on participants’ opinions and their anecdotal observations of Chinese immigrant families who practice reverse-migration separation. The study did not employ any systematic or standardized clinical assessment tools. Therefore observations as reported by participants are not perceived as empirical evidence but rather their opinions and perception.
This study contributes to our knowledge of reverse-migration separation, a common practice among a vulnerable, hard-to-reach immigrant population. It sheds light on specific needs of Chinese immigrant families who have to send their child to China to be raised while parents work in the U.S. By studying closely the unique circumstances pertaining to prolonged separation, parenting practice, and related family challenges (low income, parental stress, lack of social support), preventive measures can be developed to promote and safeguard the overall wellbeing of the parent and the child. In addition, understanding these immigrant experiences from a strength-based perspectives and what coping strategies these families used to deal with life challenges helps practitioners recognize what the clients’ service needs are and how to work more successfully with these families at reunification. In conclusion, knowledge derived from this study is instrumental in raising awareness, broadening knowledge base, and increasing effectiveness among family service professionals who serve this client population.
The author whole heartedly thanks all provider participants for their time and their openness in sharing their perspectives and professional experiences on the study phenomenon. The author particularly wants to thank Qing Yu Yu for her valuable support and help in completing this study. The study was funded by the PSC-CUNY Research Award Program and supported by Touro College Graduate School of Social Work.
Kwong, K. (2017) The Developmental Impact of Reverse-Mi- gration Separation on Low-Income Chinese-American Children―Provider Perspectives. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 5, 146-165. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2017.55011
Interview guide.
1. Is there a typical socio-demographic profile you have observed to exist among families who separate and reunite? Is the demographic profile we have gathered in the literature consistent with your own experiences working with the community?
2. What do you think are the driving factors motivating or impacting immigrant families to send their children to be raised in China?
3. Do you think the practice is encouraged or discouraged within the immigrant community?
4. What is your perception of the impact of separation on the family? How do families cope with not seeing their child, and what kind of problems do they encounter during separation? What do you think families expect of the experience of separation? Are their expectations accurate?
5. What observations have you made regarding children’s adjustment to reunification?
6. What have you observed about the reunification process/impact of reunification on families?
7. What have you observed about the resources, support, resiliency, and methods used by these families to cope with the impact of separation and reunification?
8. What are your recommendations regarding health, mental health, education, and social services targeting these vulnerable families?
9. What information regarding this topic would be useful to you, as professionals working with this community that could be explored as an area for future research?
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