The present study has explored the first authentic catalogue of the alien flora of the foot Himalayan hilly region along with their diversity, uses, various ecological aspects and invasion status. Environmentally similar south and tropical American aliens are higher in numbers in this region. A total of 216 plant species under 158 genera belong ing to 58 families have been compiled in this catalogue. This alien flora occupies ~ 14.5% of the state flora, while 3.47% is invasive. Families having a large number of alien species are Asteraceae followed by Caesalpiniaceae and Solanaceae. Most of the alien species (61.57%) are of American origin followed by Asia (15.28%) and African continent (12.04%). Life form analysis shows that herbs (42.6%) are dominated alien. Among all the aliens, 67 species are used as ornamental plant, followed by 50 medicinally useful plants. In the state neutralized aliens are (36.57%) followed by invasive alien (24.07%). The present study also reports five alien species for the first time from the study site. This base line study would be the foundation for further advance studies on the invasion ecology and for the future assessment and management of invasive species in this biodiversity rich zone. Present work obviously helps in the agricultural sector of the state as well as the country and gives a clue for further introduction of new species in the country.
Biological invasions of alien species are widely recognized as a significant component of human-caused global environmental changes, associated with significant thrashing in the economic value, biodiversity, and the physiochemical structure of invaded ecosystem [
Although, many alien plants are economically beneficial and often cultivated, and may provide food, medicines, fuel and fodder to the local communities [
Due to drastic breaching of the biogeographical barriers, earth’s biota is trans- forming local and regional floras and faunas, which were isolated continentally for millions of years [
Therefore, it is an apparent need for a region or country to develop an authentic database of flora on invasive alien species for monitoring their spread, their application by local inhabitants, their ecological impacts on native ecosystem and their invasion status in the region. In view of the above facts, the present study was aimed to compile the first authentic catalogue of the alien flora of foot Himalayan hill in the state Tripura, NE India, along with supplementation of some information of each species viz. origin, life form, habit, habitat, use, invasion status, mode/purpose of introduction and their diversity assessment. Such base line study would be the foundation of further advance studies in the invasion ecology and for the future assessment of invasive species in this biodiversity-rich zone.
Tripura is the third smallest undulating hilly state having 10,491.69 km2 area, geographically lies between 22˚56' and 24˚32'N latitude to 91˚09' and 92˚20'E longitude, in the Indo-Burma biogeographical region of India (
The intensive field survey was conducted in various season of the year, July 2013 to July 2015 to document and enlist the maximum number of alien flora from various habitat viz.-Sanctuaries, national park, forests, avenue, park, road side, public and official gardens, eco-sites, waste land, fellow lands, river catches, dry
channels, drains along highway and various crops fields, cultivated fields and other relevant ecosystems of the state. Species were identified through local floras [
The nativities of the species were confirmed from all possible sources [
For the assessment of phytosociological status of invasive species among the all alien flora of the state, we have taken the data by random quadrate method. A total of 200 quadrates were taken in the weeding season (July 2014-November 2014) from various habitats in the state. Two m2 quadrates were used for finding the frequency, density, abundance and their relative values and important value index (IVI).
Data of the invasive species were calculated by using the following formula [
1) Frequency = (Total number of quadrate in which the species occurs × 100)/ Total number of quadrate studied
2) Relative frequency = (Frequency of individuals of a species × 100)/Total frequency of all species
3) Density = Total number of individual of a species in all quadrates/Total number of quadrates studied
4) Relative density = (Density of individuals of a species × 100)/Total density of all species
5) Abundance = Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrates/Total number of quadrates in which the species occurred
6) Relative abundance = (Abundance of individual of a species × 100)/Total abundance of all species
7) Important Value Index = Relative frequency + Relative density + Relative abundance]
The present investigation reveals that the alien flora of north eastern hilly state, Tripura, is comprised of 216 plant species (~14.3% of the state flora) belonging to 158 genera within 58 families. Among all the alien plant species dicotyledons comprises maximum 187 species with 136 genus and 49 families while, monocots are represented only 24 species with 18 genus and 7 families followed by five species of gymnosperm belonging to 4 genera and 2 families which include Araucariaceae and Cupressaceae only (
Maximum numbers of alien species belonging to the families are Asteraceae (23), Caesalpiniaceae (14), Solanaceae (13), Papilionaceae (10), Malvaceae (10), Convolvulaceae and Euphorbiaceae (nine species of each), Poaceae and Cyperaceae (seven species of each) and Mimosaceae (six species). The 10 families represent 50% of the total alien flora. Relative to their total genera of the families Caesalpiniaceae represents maximum (75%) and Poaceae shows minimum (12%) alien genus in the top 10 families (
Plants group | Family | Genera | Species |
---|---|---|---|
Dicotyledons | 49 | 136 | 187 (86.57%) |
Monocotyledon | 7 | 18 | 24 (11.11%) |
Gymnosperm | 2 | 4 | 5 (2.31%) |
Total | 58 | 158 | 216 |
Family | No. of species | % of total flora | Alien genera/Total genera | Invasive genera (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Asteraceae | 23 | 42 | 19/43 | 44.19 |
Caesalpiniaceae | 14 | 60.86 | 6/8 | 75 |
Convolvulaceae | 9 | 40.9 | 2/9 | 22.22 |
Cyperaceae | 7 | 21.21 | 2/11 | 18.18 |
Euphorbiaceae | 9 | 13.84 | 6/29 | 20.68 |
Malvaceae | 10 | 38.46 | 7/11 | 63.63 |
Mimosaceae | 6 | 28.57 | 4/12 | 33.33 |
Papilionaceae | 10 | 10.63 | 8/46 | 17.39 |
Poaceae | 7 | 09 | 6/50 | 12 |
Solanaceae | 13 | 52 | 7/11 | 63.63 |
Cyperus (6), Solanum (5), Hibiscus and Brassica (4 species in each); Acacia, Alternanthera and Euphorbia (3 species in each). In terms of diversity of the species, the genus Alternanthera showed 100% invasiveness, followed by Ipomoea (88.88%), Cassia (87.5%) and Brassica (80%) (
While estimating the contribution of source flora according to their distribution we compiled them in Tabular form (
Habit wise plants are categorised as annual (40.28%) and perennial (59.72%). Estimating the life forms of all the alien species, herbs shows maximum (42.6%), followed by shrubs (23.61%), tree (22.22%), climber (5.09%), grass and sedges (3.24% each). About 23.61% of the species are abundant in various ornamental garden, followed by cultivated field, waste lands, road side and in forest ecosystem are 18.05%, 11.11%, 8.33% and 5.55% respectively. Seven species are found solely from aquatic habitat, nine from crop field, four from moist place, two each from river bed and home garden and one species Hevea brasiliensis is cultivating vigorously in the state. Remaining all the species are distributed in various habitat. A total of 66 (30.55%) species have been introduced intentionally for various economic, medicinal and ornamental purposes and remaining 150 (69.44%) species were introduced unintentionally by way of various unmannered trades (
On the profile of economic uses of the alien plant species, 63 (29.17%) species are ornamental in the state. The second most frequent economic uses are medicinal plant species (15.70%), followed by food (9.72%), fruit species (6.02%) while, 14.81% of the species has no use value. Other various uses like timber, as vegetables, fibre, hut making, latex collection of the alien species are documented through the consultation with local people in the state (
Genera | IE | NIE | NAS | % AS |
---|---|---|---|---|
Acacia | 0 | 3 | 3 | 42.85 |
Alternanthera | 3 | 0 | 3 | 100 |
Brassica | 0 | 4 | 4 | 80 |
Cassia | 3 | 5 | 8 | 87.5 |
Cyperus | 2 | 4 | 6 | 46.15 |
Euphorbia | 1 | 2 | 3 | 42.85 |
Hibiscus | 0 | 4 | 4 | 50 |
Ipomoea | 5 | 3 | 8 | 88.88 |
Solanum | 3 | 2 | 5 | 41.66 |
IE, Invasive elsewhere; NIE, Not invasive elsewhere, NAS, Number of alien species, AS, Alien species.
Family/Name of the species | OR | LF | HA | HT | USES | IS | MI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthaceae | |||||||
Justicia gendarussa (L.) F. | TWA | S | P | W, F | M | NT | UI |
Ruellia tuberosa L. | TAM | H | A | F | NK | NT | UI |
Agavaceae | |||||||
Agave cantula Roxb. | TAM | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Furcraea foetida (L.) Haw. | SAM | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Amaranthaceae | |||||||
Alternanthera brasiliana* (L.) Kuntze | BZ | H | P | G, AR | O | IN | I |
Alternanthera philoxeroides Mart. | TAM | H | P | RB | NK | IN | UI |
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. | TAM | H | P | AR | M | IN | UI |
Amaranthus spinosus L. | TAM | H | A | AR | M, V | IN | UI |
Gomphrena celosioides Martius | SAM | H | A | G, F | NK | IN | UI |
Annonaceae | |||||||
Annona reticulata L. | TAM | T | P | CF | FT | NT | I |
Annona squamosa L. | TAM | T | P | CF | FT | NT | I |
Apiaceae | |||||||
Anethum graveolens L. | SETA | H | A | CF | FD | CL | UI |
Apium graveolens L. | EU | H | A | CF | FD | CL | I |
Coriandrum cyminum L. | MDT | H | A | CF | FD | CL | UI |
Coriandrum sativum L. | MDT | H | A | CF | FD | CL | UI |
Erygium foetidum L. | SAM | H | P | CF | FD | CL | UI |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | EU | H | A | CF | FD | CL | UI |
Apocynaceae | |||||||
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. | TAM | H | A | G | O | NT | UI |
Plumeria alba L. | TAM | T | P | CF | O | CS | UI |
Plumeria rubra L. | MEX | T | P | CF | O | CS | UI |
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merr. | TAM | T | P | G, HG | O | NT | UI |
Araceae | |||||||
Caladium bicolor* (Ait. ex Dryand.) Vent. | SAM | H | P | G, AR | O | IN | UI |
Pistia stratiotes L. | TAM | H | P | A | M | NT | UI |
Araucariaceae | |||||||
Araucaria excels R. Br. | AU | T | P | G | O | CS | I |
Arecaceae | |||||||
Borassus flabellifer L. | TAF | T | P | CF | HU, TM | NT | UI |
Asclepiadaceae | |||||||
Asclepias curassavica L. | TAM | H | P | AR, G | O | NT | UI |
Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Brown | TAF | S | P | W, AR | M | NT | UI |
Asteraceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acmella radicans (Jac.) R. R. Janses | MEX | H | A | AR | NK | NT | UI |
Ageratum conyzoides L. | TAM | H | A | W, F | M | IN | UI |
Blumea lacera (Burm. F.) DC. | TAM | H | A | W | M | IN | UI |
Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robinson | SAM | S | P | AR, F | M | IN | UI |
Chrysanthemum coronarium L. | SETA | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Chrysanthemum indicum L. | SETA | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. | AM | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Cosmos sulphureus Cav. | AM | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Eclipta prostrata (L.) Mant. | TAM | H | A | AR | NK | IN | UI |
Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel | MEX | S | P | AR, F, W | NK | IN | UI |
Ganaphalium polycaulon Pers. | TAM | H | A | A, | NK | NT | UI |
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Pori. | SAM | H | A | A | M | NT | UI |
Helianthus annuus L. | TAM | H | A | G, CF | O | CS | I |
Mikania micrantha Kunth | AM | C | A | F, AR | M | IN | UI |
Parthenium hysterophorus L. | NAM | H | A | W, AR | NK | IN | UI |
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. | WI | H | A | W | NK | IN | UI |
Tagetes erecta L. | AM | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Tithonia tagetiflora Desf. | AM | H | P | G | O | CS | I |
Tridex procumbens* L. | TAM | H | A | AR, F | M | IN | UI |
Vernonia cinerea L. | SAM | H | A | AR, F | M | IN | UI |
Xanthium strumarium L. P. P. | TAM | H | A | W | NK | IN | UI |
Zinnia elegans Jacq. | AM | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Zinnia linearis Benth. | MEX | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Bignoniaceae | |||||||
Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don. | BZ | T | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Kigelia pinnata Jacq. | TAF | T | P | F | NK | CS | UI |
Millingtonia hortensis L.f. | MY | T | P | F, G | O | CS | UI |
Pyrostegia venusta (Ker-Gawl) Miers. | BZ | C | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Spathodea campanulata Beauv. | TAF | T | P | AR | NK | CS | UI |
Bixaceae | |||||||
Bixa orrellana L. | BZ | T | P | CF | D | NT | I |
Brassicaceae | |||||||
Brassica campestrs L. | MDT | H | A | CF | FD | CL | I |
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. | TWA | H | A | CF | FD | CL | I |
Brassica oleracea L. | EU | H | A | CF | FD | CL | I |
Rorippa dubia (Pers.) Hara. | TAM | H | A | W | NK | CS | UI |
Cactaceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Opuntia elatior Miller | SAM | S | P | G | HP | NT | UI |
Opuntia vulgaris Miller | SAM | S | P | G | HP | NT | UI |
Caesalpiniaceae | |||||||
Bauhinia variegata L. | CH | T | P | F | TM | CS | UI |
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. | NAM | S | P | F | M | NT | UI |
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. | TAM | S | P | AR | O | CS | I |
Cassia alata L. | SAM | S | P | W | M, O | IN | I |
Cassia fistula L. | NAM | T | P | AR | TM, O | NT | I |
Cassia nodosa Buch.-Ham. | MY | T | P | G, F, AR | O, TM | NT | UI |
Cassia occidentalis L. | SAM | H | p | W | M | IN | UI |
Cassia renigera Wall. Ex Benth. | BUR | T | p | AR | O | NT | I |
Cassia siamea Lamk. | SETA | T | P | CF, F | BF | NT | I |
Cassia sophera L. | TAM | S | A | W | M | NT | UI |
Cassia tora L. | TAM | S | A | AR | M | IN | UI |
Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. | MD | T | P | AR | O | NT | I |
Peltophorum pterocarpum* DC. | SETA | T | P | G, AR | O, TM, M | NT | UI |
Tamarindus indica L. | TAF | T | P | AR | FT | NT | I |
Caricaceae | |||||||
Carica papaya L. | TAM | S | P | HG | FD | NT | UI |
Caryophyllaceae | |||||||
Dianthus chinensis L. | SETA | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Casurarinaceae | |||||||
Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. | AU | T | P | G | O | CS | I |
Chenopodiaceae | |||||||
Chenopodium album L. | EU | H | A | AR, W | V | NT | UI |
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. | TAM | H | A | W | NK | NT | UI |
Spinacia oleracea L. | EU | H | A | CF | V | CL | I |
Convolvulaceae | |||||||
Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. | TAM | H | P | W | NK | IN | UI |
Ipomoea alba L. | TAM | H | P | HG, AR | V | IN | UI |
Ipomoea aquatica Forst. | CH | H | A | A | FD | IN | UI |
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamk. | TAF | C | A | CF | FD | CL | UI |
Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. | TAM | S | P | G | BF | IN | UI |
Ipomoea hederifolia L. | TAM | H | P | G | O | NT | UI |
Ipomoea pestigridis L. | TEAF | H | A | W | M | NT | UI |
Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth | SAM | H | A | C, W | M, FO | NT | UI |
Ipomoea quamoclif L. | TAM | H | P | W | M, O | IN | I |
Cupressaceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cupressus sempervirens L. | AU | T | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Juniperus communis L. | YU | T | P | G | O | CS | I |
Thuja occidentalis Bailey | NAM | T | P | G | O | CS | I |
Thuja orientalis L. | CH | T | P | G | O | CS | I |
Cusutaceae | |||||||
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. | MDT | C | P | F, AR | M | IN | UI |
Cyperaceae | |||||||
Cyperus cyperoides L. | TAM | SE | P | F | NK | NT | I |
Cyperus difformis L. | TAM | SE | A | C | FO | NT | UI |
Cyperus diffuses Vahl. | SETA | SE | P | MP | NK | NT | UI |
Cyperus haspan L. | NAM | SE | P | C | NK | NT | UI |
Cyperus iria L. | TAM | SE | A | C | FO | IN | UI |
Cyperus rotundus L. | TAF | SE | P | C | NK | IN | UI |
Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb. | TAM | SE | A | C | NK | NT | UI |
Dioscoreaceae | |||||||
Dioscorea oppositifolia L. | CH | C | A | F | FD, M | NT | UI |
Euphorbiaceae | |||||||
Croton bonplandianum Baill. | TAM | S | P | W, AR | M | IN | UI |
Euphorbia hirta L. | TAM | H | A | F, AR | M | IN | UI |
Euphorbia milii Des Moulins | MD | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex. Klotz. | MEX | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Hevea brasilensis Muell. Arg. | BZ | T | P | PF | LC, BF, TM | CL | I |
Jatropha curcas L. | TAM | S | P | CF | BF | CL | I |
Jatropha gossypifolia L. | TAM | S | P | AR, F | BF | NT | UI |
Manihot esculenta Crantz. | TAM | T | P | F | FD | NT | UI |
Ricinus communis L. | SAF | S | P | CF | BF, FI | NT | UI |
Lamiaceae | |||||||
Hyptis capitata Jacq. | MEX | H | A | AR, W | NK | IN | UI |
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. | TAM | H | A | AR | M | IN | UI |
Ocimum americanum L. | TAF | S | P | G | O | NT | UI |
Salvia coccinea (L.) Mant. | AM | H | A | G | O | CS | UI |
Lauraceae | |||||||
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Sieb. | CH | T | P | HG, CF | SP | NT | UI |
Liliaceae | |||||||
Asparagus tenuifolius Cav. | TAM | H | A | CF | M | CL | UI |
Hemerocallis fulva L. | CH | H | A | G | O | CS | UI |
Lythraceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lagerstroemia indica L. | CH | S | P | F, AR | TM | NT | UI |
Magnoliaceae | |||||||
Magnolia grandiflora L. | NAM | T | P | CF | O | CS | I |
Magnolia pumila Anders. | CH | T | P | CF | O | CS | UI |
Malvaceae | |||||||
Abelmoscheus esculentus Moench. | TAF | S | P | CF | V | CL | UI |
Althea rosea (L.) Cav. | EU | H | A | G | O | CS | I |
Gossypium hirsutum L. | AM | S | P | CF | FI | CL | I |
Hibiscus mutabilis L. | CH | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Hibiscus rosasinensis L. | CH | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Hibiscus schizopetalus (Masters) Hook. f. | TAF | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Hibiscus syriacus L. | SY | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Var. penduliflorus (DC.) Schery. | TAM | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Sida acuta Burm. f. | TAM | H | A | W | M, FI | IN | UI |
Urena lobata L. | TAF | S | P | W | FI | IN | UI |
Mimosaceae | |||||||
Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. Ex. Benth. | AU | T | P | AR | TM | NT | I |
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. | SAM | S | P | AR, F | NK | NT | UI |
Acacia mangium* Willd. | AU | T | P | CF | TM | NT | I |
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit | TAM | T | P | AR, F | BF | NT | I |
Mimosa pudica L. | BZ | H | P | F, AR | M | IN | UI |
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. | SAM | T | P | AR | TM, O | NT | I |
Myrtaceae | |||||||
Callistemon linearis DC. | AU | T | P | G | O | CS | I |
Eucalyptus maculata Hk. | AU | T | P | CF, F | TM | NT | I |
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. | WI | T | P | CF | FD | CL | I |
Psidium guajava L. | TAM | T | P | HG, F | FT | NT | UI |
Psidium guinensis Swartz. | SAM | T | P | HG, F | FT | NT | UI |
Nyctaginaceae | |||||||
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. | BZ | C | P | G | O | NT | UI |
Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd. | BZ | S | P | G | O | NT | UI |
Mirabilis jalapa L. | TAM | H | A | G | O | NT | I |
Nymphaea micrantha Guill. & Perr. | TAF | C | A | A | V | IN | UI |
Onagraceae | |||||||
Ludwigia octavilis (Jacq.) Raven | TAF | H | A | MP | M | IN | UI |
Ludwigia perennis L. | TAF | H | A | MP | NK | NT | UI |
Oxalidaceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oxalis corniculata L. | EU | H | P | W | M, V | NT | UI |
Papaveraceae | |||||||
Argemone mexicana L. | TAM | H | A | W | M | IN | UI |
Eschscholzia californica Cham. | MEX | H | A | G | O | CS | UI |
Papaver orientale L. | MD | H | A | G | O | CS | UI |
Papilionaceae | |||||||
Aeschynomene indica L. | NAM | H | A | A | M | NT | I |
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. | TAM | C | A | F, W | M | IN | UI |
Crotalaria pallida Ait. | TAF | S | P | AR | M | IN | UI |
Crotalaria mucronata Ait. | TAM | S | P | AR | M | NT | UI |
Dolichos lablab L. | TAF | C | A | HG, CF | V | CL | I |
Lens culinaris Medik | EU | H | A | C | FD | CL | I |
Phaseolis vulgaris L. | AM | C | A | HG, CF | FD | CL | I |
Pisum sativum L. | EU | H | A | CF | FD | CL | I |
Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W. F. Wight | TAM | S | A | G | O | NT | UI |
Sesbania sesban (L.) | SAF | T | P | HG, CF | BF, FD | CL | I |
Passifloraceae | |||||||
Passiflora foetida L. | TAM | C | A | F | NK | NT | UI |
Piperaceae | |||||||
Peperomia pellucid (L.) Kunth | SAM | H | A | AR | NK | IN | UI |
Poaceae | |||||||
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers | TAF | G | P | AR, G, CF | FO | NT | I |
Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult. | TAF | G | P | F, AR | NK | IN | UI |
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link | TAM | G | A | C | FO | NT | UI |
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. | TAM | G | P | W | R | NT | UI |
Saccharum spontaneum L. | TWA | G | P | RB | M, BF | NT | UI |
Zea mays L. | TAM | G | A | CF | FD, FO | CL | I |
Polygonaceae | |||||||
Muehlenbeckia platyclados (Muell.) Meissn. | POL | H | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Pontederiaceae | |||||||
Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub | SAM | H | A | A | M | IN | UI |
Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. F.) C. Presl. | TAM | H | P | MP | M, V | IN | UI |
Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. | TAM | G | A | C | FO | IN | UI |
Portulacaceae | |||||||
Portulaca oleracea L. | SAM | H | A | W | M, V | IN | I |
Portulaca quadrifida L. | TAM | H | A | W | NK | NT | UI |
Ranunculaceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nigella sativa L. | EU | H | A | CF | SP | CL | I |
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb) Lindl. | CH | T | P | CF | FT | CL | UI |
Prunuscom munis L. | EU | T | P | CF | FT | CL | I |
Prunus persica (L.) Stokes | CH | T | p | CF | FT | CL | I |
Rubus ellipticus Smith | TAM | S | P | W | FT | NT | UI |
Rubiaceae | |||||||
Ixora coccinea L. | CH | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Spermacoce hispida L. | TAM | H | P | AR, W | M | NT | UI |
Rutaceae | |||||||
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. | ML | T | P | HG | FT | NT | UI |
Sapindaceae | |||||||
Litchi chinensis Sonn. | CH | T | P | HG, CF | FT | CL | UI |
Sapotaceae | |||||||
Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosg. | TAM | T | P | HG, F | FT | CL | UI |
Scrophulariaceae | |||||||
Mecardonia dianthera (Sw.) Pennell. | TAM | H | A | G | O | NT | UI |
Scoparia dulcis L. | TAM | H | P | W | M | IN | UI |
Solanaceae | |||||||
Brunfelsia americana L. | WI | S | P | G | O | CS | I |
Brunfelsia hopeana Benth. | TAM | S | P | G | O | CS | I |
Capsicum annuum L. | AM | S | P | CF | FD | CL | I |
Cestrum diurnum L. | AM | S | P | G | O | CS | I |
Cestrum nocturnum L. | AM | S | P | G | O | CS | I |
Datura stramonium L. | SAM | S | P | W, AR | M | NT | UI |
Nicotiana tabacum L. | SAM | H | P | CF | SM | CL | I |
Physalis minima L. | TAM | H | A | W | FT, M | IN | UI |
Solanum myriacanthum Dun. | SAM | S | P | F | NK | NT | UI |
Solanum nigrum Sw. | TAM | H | A | CF | M, FT | IN | UI |
Solanum sisymbriifolium Lamarck | SAM | S | P | AR, W | NK | IN | UI |
Solanum torvum Sw. | WI | S | P | F, AR | M, V | NT | UI |
Solanum tuberosum L. | AM | H | A | CF | FD | CL | I |
Sterculiaceae | |||||||
Dombeya mastersii Hook. f. | TAF | T | P | F | FO, FI | NT | UI |
Melochia corchorifolia L. | TAM | H | P | W | FI, V | NT | UI |
Pterospermum semisagittatum Buch.-Ham. | MY | T | P | F | NK | NT | UI |
Theaceae | |||||||
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze. | CH | S | P | CF | DR | CL | I |
Corchorus aestuans L. | TAM | H | A | W | M | NT | UI |
Tiliaceae | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Corchoru solitorius L. | TAF | H | A | CF | M, FI | CL | UI |
Triumfetta pilosa Roth. | TAF | H | A | C, AR | NK | NT | UI |
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. | TAM | H | A | W | M | NT | UI |
Urtiaceae | |||||||
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. | SAM | H | A | AR | NK | NT | UI |
Verbenaceae | |||||||
Clerodendrum phillippinum Schauer. | CH | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Duranta repens L. | MEX | S | P | G | O | CS | UI |
Lantana camara L. | TAM | S | P | AR, F | BF, SB | IN | UI |
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis L. | TAM | H | P | C | O, M | IN | UI |
Abbreviations: *= Newly introduced alien plant species (not included in the state flora). OR, Origin: NAM-North America; CH-China; TAM-Tropical America; AU-Australia; EU-Europe; SAM-South America; BUR-Burma; SETA-South East Tropical Asia; POL-Polynesia; MD-Madagascar; TAF-Tropical Africa; WI-West Indies; TWA-Tropical west Asia; BZ-Brazil; MDT-Mediterranean; MY-Myanmar; AM-America; MEX-Mexico; TEAF-Tropical East Africa; YU-Yugoslavia; SAF-South Africa; SY-Syria; ML-Malaysia. LF, (Life form): H-Herb; C-Climber; US-Undershrub; S-Shrub; SE-Sedges; B- Bamboo; T-Tree; G-grass; HA, (Habit): A-Annual; P- Perennial. HT, (Habitat): W-Wasteland; CF-Cultivated field; F-Forest; AR-Along roadside; A-Aquatic; P-Parasites; C-Crop field; RB-River beds; G-Garden; MP- Moist place; RF-Rice field; PF- Plantation Forest; HG-Home Garden; U, (Used): AD-Adulteration; B-Basket making; BF-Biomass fuel in rural area; BR-Bio-fertilizer; TM-Timber; M-Medicinal; V-Vegetable; FI-Fibre; FO-Fodder; HP-Hedge plant; SM-Smoking; SB-Soli binder; FT-Fruit; LC-Latex Collection; NK-Not Known; HB-House building; FD-Food; O-Ornamental; HU-Hut; DR-Drink; D-Dye; SP-Spices; MI, (Mode of Introduction): AF-Agro forestry; UI- Unintentional; I-Intentional; Invasion status: CL = Cultivated alien; CS-Casual alien; NT-Naturalized alien; IN-Invasive alien.
Category | Sub-category | Number of species | Percentage of species |
---|---|---|---|
Origin | Tropical America (TAM) | 70 | 32.40 |
South America (SAM) | 23 | 10.64 | |
Tropical Africa (TAF) | 21 | 9.72 | |
China (CH) | 16 | 7.40 | |
America (AM) | 13 | 6.02 | |
Europe (EU) | 11 | 5.09 | |
Brazil (BZ) | 8 | 3.70 | |
Mexico (MEX) | 8 | 3.70 | |
Australia (AU) | 7 | 3.24 | |
North America (NAM) | 7 | 3.24 | |
South east Tropical Asia (SETA) | 7 | 3.24 | |
West Indies (WI) | 4 | 1.85 | |
Mediterranean (MDT) | 4 | 1.85 | |
Madagascar (MD) | 3 | 1.39 | |
Tropical West Asia (TWA) | 3 | 1.39 | |
Myanmar (MY) | 3 | 1.39 | |
South Africa (SAF) | 2 | 0.92 | |
Malaysia (ML) | 1 | 0.46 | |
Burma (BUR) | 1 | 0.46 | |
Polynesia | 1 | 0.46 | |
Syria (SY) | 1 | 0.46 | |
Tropical East Africa (TEA) | 1 | 0.46 | |
Yugoslavia (YU) | 1 | 0.46 | |
Habit | Perennial (P) | 129 | 59.72 |
Annual (A) | 87 | 40.28 | |
Life form | Herbs (H) | 92 | 42.6 |
Shrub (S) | 51 | 23.61 | |
Tree (T) | 48 | 22.22 | |
Climber (C) | 11 | 5.09 | |
Grass (G) | 7 | 3.24 | |
Sedge (SE) | 7 | 3.24 | |
Mode of Introduction | Unintentionally (UI) | 150 | 69.44 |
Intentionally (I) | 66 | 30.55 | |
Invasion Status | Naturalized (NT) | 79 | 36.57 |
Invasive (IN) | 52 | 24.07 | |
Casual alien (CS) | 51 | 23.61 | |
Cultivated alien (CU) | 34 | 15.74 |
Invasion status of the total alien flora (216) are categories as casual 51 (23.61%), cultivated 34 (15.74%) naturalized 79 (36.57%) and invasive alien 52 (24.07%) which are the 3.4%, 2.67%, 5.27% and 3.47% of the state flora respectively (
The present study also reports five newly introduced plant species for the first time from the state. These are includes: Acacia mangium Willd. (Mimosaceae), Tridex procumbens L. (Asteraceae), Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze (Amaranthaceae), Caladium bicolor (Ait. ex Dryand.) Vent. (Araceae), Peltophorum pterocarpum DC. (Caesalpiniaceae).
The present work also analysed the diversity of 52 invasive alien species from this alien flora. For evaluating their phytosociological attributes the data pertaining to frequency, density, abundance and their relative values and Important Value Index were recorded from the various habitats (
Sl. No. | Name of the plant | F | RF | D | RD | A | RA | IVI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Peltophorum pterocarpum (L.) King & Robinson | 71 | 4.76 | 6.11 | 9.72 | 8.60 | 4.34 | 18.82 |
2 | Ageratum conyzoides L. | 60.5 | 4.05 | 5.02 | 7.99 | 7.33 | 3.70 | 15.74 |
3 | Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. | 44 | 2.95 | 3.36 | 5.35 | 7.65 | 3.86 | 12.16 |
4 | Euphorbia hirta L. | 45.5 | 3.05 | 3.32 | 5.28 | 7.30 | 3.69 | 12.02 |
5 | Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. | 53 | 3.55 | 3.03 | 4.82 | 5.72 | 2.89 | 11.26 |
6 | Parthenium hysterophorus L. | 33 | 2.21 | 2.56 | 4.07 | 7.76 | 3.92 | 10.20 |
7 | Cassia tora L. | 42.5 | 2.85 | 2.41 | 3.83 | 5.57 | 2.81 | 9.49 |
8 | Pennisetum polystachyon (L.) Schult. | 35 | 2.34 | 2.33 | 3.71 | 6.66 | 3.36 | 9.41 |
9 | Alternanthera philoxeroides Mart. | 50.5 | 3.38 | 2.13 | 3.39 | 4.23 | 2.13 | 8.90 |
10 | Mimosa pudica L. | 49 | 3.28 | 1.96 | 3.12 | 4 | 2.02 | 8.42 |
11 | Mikania micrantha Kunth | 47 | 3.15 | 1.93 | 3.07 | 4.11 | 2.07 | 8.29 |
12 | Sida acuta Burm. f | 48.5 | 3.25 | 1.33 | 2.12 | 2.75 | 1.39 | 6.76 |
13 | Eclipta prostrata (L.) Mant. | 19 | 1.27 | 1.18 | 1.88 | 6.21 | 3.14 | 6.29 |
14 | Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub | 17.5 | 1.17 | 1.07 | 1.70 | 6.14 | 3.10 | 5.97 |
15 | Gomphrena celosioides Martius | 28.5 | 1.91 | 1.20 | 1.91 | 4.21 | 2.13 | 5.95 |
16 | Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. | 33.5 | 2.24 | 1.19 | 1.89 | 3.57 | 1.80 | 5.93 |
17 | Ludwigia perennis L. | 22.5 | 1.51 | 1.11 | 1.77 | 4.95 | 2.50 | 5.78 |
18 | Peperomia pellucid (L.) Kunth | 24.5 | 1.64 | 1.11 | 1.77 | 4.55 | 2.30 | 5.71 |
19 | Croton bonplandianum Baill. | 44.5 | 2.98 | 0.98 | 1.56 | 2.20 | 1.11 | 5.65 |
20 | Lantana camara L. | 32.5 | 2.18 | 1.07 | 1.70 | 3.31 | 1.67 | 5.55 |
21 | Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze | 25.5 | 1.71 | 1.05 | 1.67 | 4.10 | 2.07 | 5.45 |
22 | Urena lobata L. | 34.5 | 2.31 | 0.94 | 1.49 | 2.72 | 1.37 | 5.17 |
23 | Argemone Mexicana L. | 3.5 | 2.34 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 5.14 | 2.59 | 5.14 |
24 | Cyperus iria L. | 34 | 1.61 | 1.05 | 1.67 | 3.09 | 1.56 | 4.84 |
25 | Physalis minima L. | 20.5 | 1.37 | 0.67 | 1.07 | 4.55 | 2.30 | 4.74 |
25 | Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. | 31.5 | 2.11 | 0.80 | 1.27 | 2.54 | 1.28 | 4.66 |
26 | Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel | 21 | 1.41 | 0.80 | 1.27 | 3.83 | 1.93 | 4.61 |
27 | Vernonia cinerea L. | 33 | 2.21 | 0.74 | 1.18 | 2.24 | 1.13 | 4.52 |
28 | Cyperus rotundus L. | 29 | 1.94 | 0.75 | 1.19 | 2.60 | 1.31 | 4.44 |
29 | Tridex procumbens L. | 28 | 1.88 | 0.75 | 1.19 | 2.70 | 1.36 | 4.43 |
30 | Cassia occidentalis L. | 30 | 2.01 | 0.71 | 1.13 | 2.38 | 1.20 | 4.34 |
31 | Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. | 14 | 0.94 | 0.65 | 1.03 | 4.64 | 2.34 | 4.31 |
32 | Hyptis capitata Jacq. | 18.5 | 1.24 | 0.67 | 1.07 | 3.62 | 1.83 | 4.14 |
33 | Ipomoea aquatica Forst. | 21 | 1.41 | 0.65 | 1.03 | 3.09 | 1.56 | 4.00 |
34 | Amaranthus spinosus L. | 27 | 1.81 | 0.61 | 0.97 | 2.28 | 1.15 | 3.93 |
35 | Crotalaria pallida Ait. | 27.5 | 1.84 | 0.59 | 0.94 | 2.14 | 1.08 | 3.86 |
36 | Portulaca oleracea L. | 15 | 1 | 0.74 | 1.18 | 3.29 | 1.66 | 3.84 |
37 | Ludwigia octavilis (Jacq.) Raven | 24 | 1.61 | 0.59 | 0.94 | 2.46 | 1.24 | 3.79 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
38 | Xanthium strumarium L. P. P. | 22 | 1.47 | 0.55 | 0.87 | 2.50 | 1.26 | 3.60 |
39 | Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. | 17.5 | 1.17 | 0.53 | 0.84 | 3.06 | 1.54 | 3.55 |
40 | Cassia alata L. | 23 | 1.54 | 0.50 | 0.79 | 2.19 | 1.11 | 3.44 |
41 | Solanum sisymbriifolium Lamarck | 25.5 | 1.71 | 0.48 | 0.76 | 1.90 | 0.96 | 3.43 |
42 | Blumea lacera (Burm. F.) DC. | 25.5 | 1.71 | 0.47 | 0.75 | 1.86 | 0.94 | 3.40 |
43 | Solanum nigrum Sw. | 26 | 1.74 | 0.46 | 0.73 | 1.77 | 0.89 | 3.36 |
44 | Scoparia dulcis L. | 14.5 | 0.97 | 0.42 | 0.67 | 2.93 | 1.48 | 3.12 |
45 | Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. F.) C. Presl. | 13.5 | 0.90 | 0.34 | 0.54 | 3.18 | 1.60 | 3.04 |
46 | Stachytarpheta jamaicensis L. | 18 | 1.21 | 0.40 | 0.64 | 2.22 | 1.12 | 2.97 |
47 | Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. | 10.5 | 0.70 | 0.33 | 0.52 | 3.14 | 1.58 | 2.80 |
48 | Ipomoea quamoclit L. | 15 | 1 | 0.31 | 0.49 | 2.10 | 1.06 | 2.55 |
49 | Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. | 11.5 | 0.77 | 0.22 | 0.35 | 1.96 | 0.99 | 2.11 |
50 | Caladium bicolor (Ait. ex. Dryand.) Vent. | 14 | 0.94 | 0.22 | 0.35 | 1.57 | 0.79 | 2.08 |
51 | Nymphaea micrantha Guill. & Perr. | 9.5 | 0.64 | 0.17 | 0.27 | 1.79 | 0.90 | 1.81 |
52 | Ipomoea alba L. | 6.5 | 0.43 | 0.10 | 0.16 | 1.61 | 0.81 | 1.40 |
Abbreviation: F, Frequency; RF, Relative frequency; D, Density; RD, Relative density; A, Abundance; RA, Relative abundance; IVI, Important Value Index.
Although, some of the alien species are invasive and a major threat to the local ecosystem when they are introduced unintentionally outside their natural habitat, but many alien species are supporting our farming and forestry structure in an immense manner [
A total of 216 alien species are distributed in various ecosystems in the state which belongs to 58 families, from which only 10 families accounts the 50 % of the total alien flora. Asteraceae is the dominant alien family having 10.64% of total alien flora in the state followed by Caesalpiniaceae, Solanaceae, Papilionaceae, Malvaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Mimosaceae. Our finding about the distribution of families of alien species in Tripura is in accordance with the findings of earlier workers in other parts of India [
From the newly introduced five species those are not yet included in the state flora have some ecological impacts. Peltophorum pterocarpum (Caesalpiniaceae) is naturalized in terrestrial habitat and geographically originated from South East Tropical Asia. Alternanthera brasiliana (Amaranthaceae), Caladium bicolor (Araceae), and Tridex procumbens (Asteraceae) are invasive to the native ecosystem in the state. Alternanthera brasiliana, Caladium bicolor were originally introduced as ornamental aliens but at present they have invaded the natural flora and become establish in the local ecosystem replacing the original population thus becomes detrimental. This kind of invasiveness of the ornamental plant was also reported from Kashmir valley [
In earlier reports [
The American alien plant species in the state (61.57%) exceed the total American contribution (55%) alien plant species in India [
Herbs are the dominant alien species (92) in the state followed by shrubs and tree which supports the findings of previous work [
The present study also shows the relatively higher percentage (31.02%) of ornamental alien species introduced in the state are in accordance with the observations of the earlier workers in the flora of Azores Archipelago and Taiwan [
The invasive alien species can rapidly adapt to a wide range of environmental condition which may assist their dispersal to a far distance from their place of origin. Some herbaceous and shrubby alien plants like Chromolaena odorata, Cassia tora, Lantana camara, Ageratum conyzoides, Amaranthus spinosus, Eichornia crassipes and Alternanthera sessilis are harmful to the mankind. Their invasion and rapid propagation has triggered ecological imbalance within the native floristic composition. The studies on historical and present perspective of Lantana camera showed that it was introduced in Indian Botanical Garden, Shivpur as an ornamental hedge at 1809 [
In this investigation, we have compiled all the alien flora of the state with their invasion status. Such careful compilation and categorization of regional alien flora will provide vital clues for revelation of the problem resulting from species invasion. Most of the invasive species in the catalogue are noxious to the agro- ecosystem as well as to the indigenous flora in the state. In this perspective this catalogue could be effective for the prediction of invasive aliens, their monitoring and management practices. This catalogue will obviously help in the agricultural sector in the state as well as in the whole country. It also gives a clue for further introduction of any species in the country. It may help the Department of Forest and Agriculture for further advancement of research in their related field. The present work, hopefully, will help the prologue of such aliens to any new place of Indian sub-continent, Indo barman region as well as other parts of the world.
Authors are thankful to the CSIR for providing financial support which helps us to carry out this work. We are thankfull to BSI, Shillong for their kind help to confirm our identification of some species. We are highly gratitude to Smt. Bina Sinha, retired professor of MBB College, Agartala Tripura for her support and useful suggestions in this work. Authors are also thanks full to the farmers and agriculturist of the state for sharing their valuable information about the alien weeds and their infestation. We also admire those, without whose helps the compilation of the catalogue was not possible.
Debnath, A. and Debnath, B. (2017) Diversity, Invasion Status and Usages of Alien Plant Species in Northeastern Hilly State of Tripura: A Confluence of Indo-Barman Hotspot. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 8, 212-235. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2017.82017