In country like India, the groundwater is widely used for drinking purposes. In central India, the groundwater is hard and contaminated with F? and other elements above the permissible limits and found to be linked with prevalence of the fluorosis diseases. In this work, the groundwater quality Balod district, Chhattisgarh, India is investigated for assessment of water quality for drinking purposes. The concentration (n = 50) of F? was ranged from 1.5 - 14.0 mg/L with mean value of 3.9 ± 0.8 mg/L. The causes of prevalence of skeleton fluorosis in human of the studied area are described.
Ground water is an important resource for drinking agriculture purposes. Groundwater uses and applications are often related to its composition, which is increasingly influenced by human activities. In fact the water quality of groundwater was affected by many factors including precipitation, surface runoff, groundwater flow, and the characteristics of the catchment area. The over extraction of groundwater caused huge weathering of the metamorphic rocks. In several regions of the country, the groundwater was contaminated with F− beyond permissible limit of 1.5 mg/L with linking of fluorosis diseases in human [
The Balod district included five blocks: Balod, Gurur, Gunderdehi, Dondi Lohara and Dondi. The area of the district is ≈4000 km2 with population of 1.3 million. The materials i.e. buildings, metals, pipes, etc. are corroded due to acidic nature of water. The residents of the studied area were suffering with the fluorosis diseases due to mineralization of F−. In present investigation, the Balod district of Chhattisgarh state, central India has been selected for groundwater quality studies to assess the contaminants.
The groundwater sampling network, based on water uses and contamination sources is shown in
The total dissolved solid (TDS) was determined by the evaporation method. The total hardness (TH) value of the
water was analyzed by the titration method [
The physical parameters (i.e. age and depth of tube wells) and habitant population were recorded with the help of public health engineering department, and data are presented in
The chemical characteristics of the groundwater are presented in
The spatial variation in physiochemical parameters of the water is shown in
The correlation matrix of elements in the water of Gunderdehi block is summarized in
Three elements i.e. F−, Fe and Ca2+ were found in all locations above permissible limit of 1.5, 0.3 and 75 mg/L, respectively [
The groundwater of the Balod district, Chhattisgarh, central India was found to be contaminated with Fe, F−, Cl− and Ca2+ above permissible limits, which rendering water not suitable for the drinking purposes. The higher prevalence rate of fluorosis diseases was observed in the Gunderdehi and Balod blocks.
S. No. | Location | Block | Age of tube well, Yr | Depth of tube well, m | Population exposed to F− contamination |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Chitoud | Gurur | 10 | 46 | 2500 |
2 | Mirritola | 12 | 46 | 2000 | |
3 | Boridkala | 8 | 55 | 2100 | |
4 | Userwara | 10 | 61 | 2400 | |
5 | Kaneri | 8 | 55 | 1800 | |
6 | Bhulandabari | 25 | 46 | 2000 | |
7 | Dhaneli | 8 | 49 | 2300 | |
8 | Ranitarai | Balod | 12 | 40 | 2100 |
9 | Balod | 9 | 61 | 18,000 | |
10 | Madwapathra | 7 | 46 | 1200 | |
11 | Malganv | 13 | 61 | 1300 | |
12 | Malganv | 10 | 46 | 1300 | |
13 | Malganv | 17 | 76 | 1300 | |
14 | Umerdhah | 12 | 40 | 2500 | |
15 | Shikosha | Gunderdehi | 7 | 46 | 2500 |
16 | Limora | 20 | 46 | 1500 | |
17 | Rangakatora | 25 | 55 | 2400 | |
18 | Kachandur | 12 | 46 | 2600 | |
19 | Gureda | 10 | 61 | 2800 | |
20 | Gureda | 8 | 46 | 2800 | |
21 | Gureda | 10 | 55 | 2800 | |
22 | Gureda | 15 | 46 | 2800 | |
23 | Shikola | 10 | 37 | 2100 | |
24 | Parna | 7 | 61 | 2400 | |
25 | Parna | 12 | 46 | 2400 | |
26 | Naharkhapari | 10 | 55 | 2500 | |
27 | Dondi | Dondi | 15 | 37 | 4000 |
28 | Kamta | 5 | 46 | 1800 | |
29 | Awari | 8 | 37 | 2000 | |
30 | Pusawad | 13 | 55 | 1500 | |
31 | Kuwagondi | 20 | 46 | 1300 | |
32 | Surdongar | 8 | 85 | 1200 | |
33 | Dighwari | 5 | 46 | 900 | |
34 | Chihero | 4 | 61 | 1200 | |
35 | Aamadula | 25 | 46 | 1900 | |
36 | Gudum | 10 | 43 | 2300 | |
37 | Khairwahi | 10 | 76 | 1100 | |
38 | Parsuli | Dondi Lohara | 15 | 46 | 2500 |
39 | Bharda | 12 | 46 | 1200 | |
40 | Bhaihakuwa | 5 | 46 | 1100 | |
41 | Jatadhah | 8 | 55 | 1200 | |
42 | Sahganv | 10 | 61 | 1000 | |
43 | Gainji | 15 | 46 | 1200 | |
44 | Shikaritola | 7 | 40 | 1500 | |
45 | Armurkasa | 13 | 43 | 1800 | |
46 | Patratola | 5 | 37 | 1700 | |
47 | Chikhalakasa | 17 | 55 | 2300 | |
48 | Dalli-Rajhara | 25 | 37 | 20,000 | |
49 | Borid | 8 | 55 | 1500 | |
50 | Gujra | 10 | 55 | 2000 |
S. No. | T ˚C | pH | EC, μS/cm | TDS, mg/L | TH, mg/L | DO, mg/L | RP, mV | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 23 | 7.4 | 802 | 599 | 183 | 11 | 196 | |||
2 | 23 | 6.9 | 213 | 498 | 174 | 10 | 206 | |||
3 | 24 | 7.2 | 530 | 1001 | 187 | 11 | 211 | |||
4 | 25 | 7.2 | 417 | 1218 | 155 | 11 | 219 | |||
5 | 25 | 7 | 310 | 1417 | 141 | 10 | 224 | |||
6 | 24 | 7.5 | 833 | 1990 | 208 | 11 | 179 | |||
7 | 24 | 7.7 | 535 | 1616 | 236 | 11 | 168 | |||
8 | 24 | 7.9 | 546 | 470 | 201 | 11 | 225 | |||
9 | 26 | 7.4 | 1171 | 650 | 495 | 11 | 298 | |||
10 | 24 | 6.6 | 224 | 971 | 105 | 11 | 215 | |||
11 | 25 | 6.1 | 271 | 1133 | 115 | 11 | 225 | |||
12 | 23 | 6.6 | 345 | 2796 | 135 | 11 | 217 | |||
13 | 25 | 7.2 | 490 | 1353 | 155 | 11 | 196 | |||
14 | 25 | 7.9 | 491 | 1220 | 204 | 11 | 193 | |||
15 | 25 | 7.4 | 338 | 677 | 176 | 10 | 188 | |||
16 | 25 | 7.8 | 594 | 644 | 234 | 11 | 201 | |||
17 | 24 | 7.7 | 884 | 1161 | 348 | 11 | 205 | |||
18 | 24 | 8 | 412 | 735 | 184 | 10 | 198 | |||
19 | 24 | 7.9 | 390 | 1027 | 155 | 12 | 250 | |||
20 | 25 | 8 | 420 | 667 | 187 | 12 | 219 | |||
21 | 25 | 8.1 | 509 | 1038 | 216 | 11 | 221 | |||
22 | 25 | 7.4 | 490 | 1149 | 169 | 12 | 218 | |||
23 | 25 | 7.4 | 1278 | 616 | 540 | 12 | 259 | |||
24 | 24 | 8.1 | 702 | 901 | 345 | 11 | 146 | |||
25 | 24 | 8.2 | 698 | 2110 | 295 | 10 | 201 | |||
26 | 24 | 7.7 | 535 | 866 | 198 | 10 | 198 | |||
27 | 25 | 6.8 | 1069 | 816 | 395 | 11 | 296 | |||
28 | 28 | 6.4 | 481 | 751 | 150 | 11 | 206 | |||
29 | 24 | 6.5 | 212 | 910 | 75 | 11 | 202 | |||
30 | 27 | 6.8 | 135 | 1640 | 145 | 11 | 209 | |||
31 | 25 | 6.4 | 460 | 2288 | 205 | 11 | 219 | |||
32 | 24 | 6.5 | 167 | 1085 | 75 | 11 | 232 | |||
33 | 25 | 6.6 | 437 | 949 | 120 | 10 | 211 | |||
34 | 25 | 6.1 | 141 | 2612 | 65 | 11 | 230 | |||
35 | 25 | 7.2 | 413 | 1460 | 175 | 11 | 210 | |||
36 | 23 | 7.4 | 520 | 852 | 247 | 11 | 211 | |||
37 | 25 | 7.8 | 644 | 1440 | 185 | 10 | 184 | |||
38 | 25 | 8.6 | 502 | 2066 | 732 | 12 | 248 | |||
39 | 25 | 7.5 | 394 | 956 | 145 | 10 | 221 | |||
40 | 26 | 6.9 | 215 | 1928 | 112 | 11 | 211 | |||
41 | 25 | 7.5 | 529 | 1641 | 210 | 10 | 201 | |||
42 | 25 | 7.6 | 862 | 2050 | 456 | 11 | 205 | |||
43 | 25 | 8 | 425 | 1232 | 230 | 11 | 186 | |||
44 | 24 | 7.7 | 371 | 1856 | 142 | 10 | 202 | |||
45 | 26 | 7.7 | 515 | 2414 | 185 | 11 | 215 | |||
46 | 26 | 7.7 | 487 | 3018 | 160 | 11 | 217 | |||
47 | 25 | 7.6 | 642 | 2083 | 182 | 11 | 199 | |||
48 | 25 | 8 | 101 | 2381 | 60 | 10 | 205 | |||
49 | 25 | 7.8 | 655 | 841 | 213 | 11 | 213 | |||
50 | 25 | 7.3 | 509 | 1504 | 105 | 12 | 210 | |||
S. No. | F− | Cl− | Na+ | K+ | Mg2+ | Ca2+ | Fe | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1.9 | 60 | 22 | 19 | 2.9 | 50 | 8 | 3.8 | 75 | 0.51 |
2 | 1.8 | 51 | 10 | 16 | 2.6 | 52 | 13 | 3.3 | 69 | 0.63 |
3 | 2.0 | 124 | 50 | 10 | 1.4 | 57 | 7 | 4.5 | 79 | 0.71 |
4 | 1.9 | 132 | 96 | 14 | 2.3 | 89 | 14 | 4.1 | 65 | 0.69 |
5 | 1.9 | 164 | 90 | 55 | 1.0 | 63 | 28 | 4.3 | 56 | 0.75 |
6 | 3.0 | 330 | 92 | 31 | 1.7 | 111 | 6 | 7.2 | 83 | 0.66 |
7 | 5.8 | 256 | 10 | 11 | 1.0 | 105 | 48 | 8.9 | 94 | 0.49 |
8 | 4.6 | 503 | 32 | 31 | 1.2 | 123 | 13 | 7.1 | 80 | 0.59 |
9 | 14 | 470 | 100 | 22 | 2.2 | 60 | 13 | 4.1 | 198 | 0.48 |
10 | 3.9 | 33 | 10 | 36 | 1.1 | 50 | 14 | 7.7 | 42 | 0.43 |
11 | 4.7 | 77 | 14 | 17 | 1.1 | 45 | 17 | 8 | 46 | 0.4 |
12 | 6.5 | 111 | 36 | 37 | 1.3 | 60 | 8 | 11.3 | 54 | 0.46 |
13 | 8.6 | 102 | 48 | 41 | 1.4 | 89 | 15 | 11.9 | 62 | 0.42 |
14 | 7.2 | 73 | 96 | 55 | 1.2 | 153 | 20 | 3.5 | 83 | 0.51 |
15 | 3.6 | 80 | 12 | 17 | 1.2 | 89 | 8 | 4.5 | 70 | 0.52 |
16 | 2.7 | 230 | 44 | 19 | 1.0 | 89 | 8 | 3.4 | 94 | 0.49 |
17 | 1.9 | 372 | 86 | 42 | 1.0 | 40 | 5 | 2.9 | 139 | 0.51 |
18 | 2.4 | 107 | 34 | 36 | 1.1 | 57 | 5 | 3.2 | 74 | 0.74 |
19 | 2.1 | 460 | 18 | 12 | 1.0 | 73 | 12 | 3.5 | 62 | 0.66 |
20 | 7.6 | 260 | 20 | 18 | 1.4 | 142 | 26 | 8.3 | 75 | 0.72 |
21 | 3.1 | 340 | 114 | 45 | 1.2 | 77 | 16 | 4.2 | 84 | 0.68 |
22 | 12 | 90 | 20 | 26 | 2.5 | 129 | 39 | 26.5 | 68 | 0.78 |
23 | 11 | 99 | 30 | 54 | 2.6 | 153 | 32 | 23.9 | 216 | 0.64 |
24 | 4.2 | 413 | 54 | 17 | 1.2 | 157 | 15 | 6.4 | 138 | 0.48 |
25 | 4.0 | 655 | 68 | 19 | 1.0 | 105 | 11 | 5.9 | 138 | 0.51 |
26 | 4.1 | 410 | 52 | 24 | 1.1 | 110 | 9 | 6.3 | 79 | 4.23 |
27 | 1.8 | 529 | 108 | 24 | 1.2 | 94 | 14 | 3.1 | 158 | 0.59 |
28 | 3.8 | 210 | 50 | 29 | 1.5 | 81 | 10 | 7.2 | 60 | 0.81 |
29 | 1.5 | 59 | 10 | 66 | 1.6 | 45 | 11 | 2.8 | 30 | 0.76 |
30 | 3.2 | 40 | 10 | 37 | 1.1 | 48 | 12 | 6.5 | 58 | 0.69 |
31 | 4.0 | 165 | 42 | 22 | 2.3 | 52 | 12 | 8.1 | 82 | 1.51 |
32 | 2.0 | 40 | 10 | 106 | 1.0 | 40 | 11 | 6 | 30 | 0.72 |
33 | 2.0 | 130 | 32 | 23 | 1.0 | 93 | 11 | 3.2 | 48 | 0.53 |
34 | 1.9 | 68 | 24 | 41 | 1.0 | 48 | 11 | 2.6 | 26 | 0.51 |
35 | 5.4 | 101 | 34 | 19 | 2.3 | 64 | 44 | 8.5 | 70 | 0.72 |
36 | 1.7 | 65 | 16 | 33 | 1.5 | 76 | 3 | 6.7 | 79 | 0.65 |
37 | 4.9 | 147 | 24 | 35 | 1.3 | 105 | 8 | 8.9 | 74 | 0.43 |
38 | 4.9 | 136 | 17 | 52 | 1.8 | 86 | 4 | 23.4 | 178 | 0.49 |
39 | 1.8 | 74 | 130 | 41 | 1.0 | 45 | 31 | 2.3 | 58 | 0.57 |
40 | 2.0 | 56 | 12 | 16 | 1.0 | 60 | 11 | 3.4 | 45 | 0.66 |
41 | 5.5 | 108 | 46 | 4 | 1.4 | 36 | 8 | 8.9 | 84 | 0.45 |
42 | 3.5 | 288 | 92 | 31 | 1.2 | 93 | 7 | 6.7 | 182 | 0.51 |
43 | 3.4 | 61 | 30 | 23 | 1.2 | 68 | 7 | 4.1 | 92 | 0.42 |
44 | 2.1 | 85 | 24 | 22 | 2.1 | 73 | 5 | 3.9 | 57 | 2.04 |
45 | 3.4 | 40 | 36 | 24 | 1.1 | 64 | 5 | 4.0 | 74 | 0.78 |
46 | 2.2 | 91 | 34 | 26 | 2.0 | 77 | 6 | 3.1 | 64 | 4.53 |
47 | 1.7 | 249 | 118 | 31 | 1.0 | 57 | 14 | 2.8 | 73 | 0.87 |
48 | 1.8 | 510 | 114 | 16 | 1.5 | 81 | 14 | 2.0 | 24 | 0.65 |
49 | 2.2 | 155 | 58 | 23 | 1.1 | 28 | 7 | 3.6 | 85 | 0.71 |
50 | 3.3 | 110 | 34 | 10 | 2.2 | 101 | 12 | 3.9 | 42 | 0.62 |
F− | Cl− | Na+ | K+ | Mg2+ | Ca2+ | Fe | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F− | 1.00 | |||||||||
Cl− | −0.46 | 1.00 | ||||||||
−0.41 | 0.49 | 1.00 | ||||||||
0.23 | −0.32 | 0.45 | 1.00 | |||||||
Na+ | 0.73 | −0.09 | −0.34 | −0.13 | 1.00 | |||||
K+ | 0.96 | −0.37 | −0.31 | 0.20 | 0.70 | 1.00 | ||||
Mg2+ | 0.96 | −0.46 | −0.35 | 0.33 | 0.62 | 0.91 | 1.00 | |||
Ca2+ | 0.28 | 0.09 | 0.23 | 0.55 | 0.36 | 0.20 | 0.35 | 1.00 | ||
Fe | −0.11 | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.20 | −0.10 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 1.00 | |
0.94 | −0.58 | −0.37 | 0.43 | 0.59 | 0.89 | 0.98 | 0.40 | 0.10 | 1.00 |
We are thankful to the UGC, New Delhi for awarding the Rajiv Gandhi fellowship to three authors: KPR, BLS and SR.
Ankit Yadav,Yaman Kumar Sahu,Keshaw Prakash Rajhans,Pravin Kumar Sahu,Suryakant Chakradhari,Bharat Lal Sahu,Shobhana Ramteke,Khageshwar Singh Patel, (2016) Fluoride Contamination of Groundwater and Skeleton Fluorosis in Central India. Journal of Environmental Protection,07,784-792. doi: 10.4236/jep.2016.76071