Pushed by the results of a preceding publication on the possibly Quaternary Jebel Waqf as Suwwan Meteorite Crater, Jordan [5] , where an amazing coincidence of Rapid Climate Changes (RCCs) with Rise and Fall of Neolithic and Bronze Age Cultures became evident for the Near/Middle East, this paper deals with the same subject, however, relating to the complete Holocene period in the same area and, additionally, in Central Europe as well. By application of modern climatic data [6] comprising isotope analysis (δ18O, 14C, 10Be), acid and aerosol events, and greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4) Greenland ice cores as well as other astro-/geophysical and geological parameters, an overwhelming coincidence/relation/interdependence of both natural and cultural evidences becomes obvious throughout the last 15,000 years across the Northern Hemisphere. Apart from solar output and other astrophysical processes, most important climate- and Earth-related parameters are Mega-Volcanism (i.e.Santorini Greece: ~3640 yr cal. B. P.), Impact Events (i.e. during Mesolithic: ~9600 yr cal. B. P), rapid oceanic current change (DO-Events), and Plate Tectonics (possibly Atlantis-Event: ~11,500 yr cal. B.P. = Pleistocene/Holocene boundary). The most essential parameter is a significant temperature change related to more or less restricted latitude realms of the Northern Hemisphere. Thus, glacier advance/retreat controls the mobility of peoples (i.e. Nations' Migration, Teutonic Empires) and the access to ore deposits (Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Zn, Pb, Fe) located in Alpine Mountain Ranges (i.e. End-Neolithic, Early Bronze Age). Myths like the Gilgamesh Epos and John Apocalypse convincingly reveal realistic contents relating to natural hazards like tsunamis, impact and flooding events. They unmisunderstandably make obvious that Myths may provide valuable contributions, especially to Geosciences. Some of the controlling parameters interrelate with others or present a kind of hierarchy: Mega-Volcanism/impact events à ejecta à wildfires, heat storms à cosmic winter, sint winter à stop of photosynthesis à mass extinction environmental pollution à greenhouse effects. Significant events (21 cases in total) occurred on i.e.
After the discovery of Jebel Waqf as Suwwan Meteorite Crater (JWS), Jordan [
Unfortunately, the age of JWS is still unknown, however, to be expected through the post-Eocene to Early Holocene time-span (
The current paper [
Furthermore, myths like the GILGAMESH-EPOS [
Consequently, this paper deals with the same intention, namely, coincidence/relation/interchange of RCCs and other natural events with Rise and Fall of Near/Middle East and Central European Cultures through the last 15,000 years.
“Because of the large number of scientists nowadays and because of the large financial support which they enjoy, uncertain problems mostly have been cleared up already if it were otherwise. So you can be pretty certain that wherever problems resist solution for any appreciable time by an appreciable number of scientists the ideas used for attacking them must be wrong. It is therefore a mistake to have anything to do with popular ideas for solving uncertain issues, and the more respectable may be the more certain it is they are wrong” (F. Hoyle, [
A broad data base for such a challenging subject was published by Mayewski et al., 2004: “Holocene Climate Variability” [
The climate-relating parameters used are as follows:
・ Carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) in Greenland ice cores, oxygen isotopes (δ18O) in calcareous microfossils (foraminifera) with regard to temperature variation [
・ Radiocarbon data (δ14C) yr cal. B.P. for age determination [
・ Sulfuric dioxide (SO2) and nitric oxides (NOx) generated by volcanism and impact events [
・ Beryllium isotopes (δ10Be) in GISP 2 ice-core for verifying solar activity variation [
・ Step by step disappearance/extinction of large Mammals and their robbery enemies [
・ Tektites (rock glass originated by impacting), [
・ Another, rather major, however postulated, parameter, may relate to a large Comet that has possibly been crossing the Earth’s Orbit all ~1600yr since Late Paleolithic about 12,300, 10,700, 9100, 7500, 5900, 4300, 2700, 1100 yr B. C., 500 yr A.D., and to be expected 2100 yr A.D. [
In case of relative proximity to the Sun, the Comet would be warmed up and would thereby lose, in connection with vaporization processes, solid extraterrestrial material by its repeated passage, to remain in the Earth's Orbit for possible impacts (follow Space Shuttle ROSETTA accompanying Comet CHURY).
By expecting a large size of the Comet, this also might have additional influence on the Earth’s ecliptic and Magnetic Field variation or even for triggering magmatic processes on Earth [
・ Major glaciation cycles (Milankovitch-Cycles: [
・ Furthermore, during the last glaciation, about 20 abrupt dramatic RCCs (Dansgaard-Oeschger Events-DO) occurred, each within one to two decades revealing temperature rise of partially 12˚C, worldwide measured at 183 locations [
They obviously relate to an abrupt change of oceanic currents in the North Atlantic by a gigantic energy transport during a labile equilibrium between two different current patterns [
・ Another climate evidence concerns the so-called “Heinrich-Events” yielding temperature cycles of several 1000 yr represented by sand and gravel layers intercalated with common fine-grained Atlantic deep sea oozes [
・ Dating of Rise and Fall of Early Holocene Cultures is based on 14C yr cal. B.P. analysis (B.P.:O = 1950 A.D.), see [
・ By applying the different genetic phases during an impact event, myths like mentioned above, are absolutely useful as data for comparison and realistic conclusions (comp. chapter 5).
Already prior to the Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (~11,500 yr cal. B. P.), there is evidence of two other Cases of relevant coincidence during the uppermost Paleolithic (Magdalenian) to be discussed:
Case 1:
DO-1, an acid-event, and CH4-peak (~14,450 yr B.P.) which indicates an abrupt temperature rise, meet Hoyle’s Comet (0). These processes possibly triggered the beginning of the NATUFIAN C. in Jordan and Israel [
Case 2:
The beginning of the Younger Dryas (~12,700 yr B.P.) coincides with Hoyle’s Comet [
Case 3:
The end of the Younger Dryas is marked by an abrupt temperature rise (DO-0) underlined by a CH4-peak, an acid-event, wetlands in moderate latitudes, droughts in low latitudes [
Case 4:
In turn, Hoyle’s Comet (2), volcanic aerosols, and, after an interruption, the continuation of the ABU HUREYRA C. as well as the foundation of several “Towns” in Palestine (Jericho) and southern Jordan (Beidha, Basta, Basha) complete a remarkable Event-Ensemble [
Case 5:
The younger MESOLITHIC (~10,000-9000 yr B.P.) exposes an overwhelming accumulation of hazards: this is Hoyle’s Comet [
During the last third of the 10th millennium B.P. “Towns” like Jericho, Beidha, Basta, and others in southern Jordan collapsed at all [
Case 6:
As precursor of the first large RCC 1 (~9000-8000 yr B.P.), this Case relates to two acid events which are in coincidence with the end of the ABU HUREYRA C. [
RCC 1 provided large ice sheets with a short-lived cooling in the North Atlantic (8 k-event: ~8200yr B.P., [
The RCC 1 interval was accompanied by an unusually high aerosol production in the Northern Hemisphere possibly associated with impact events and decrease of CO2 and CH4 indicating lower temperatures.
Case 7:
There does exist another massive coincidence at the end of RCC 1 with Hoyle's Comet [
Case 8:
A series of aerosol-events mainly caused by HEKLA-Volcanism, Iceland [
Formation of the High Balkans, Bulgaria [
Following immediately, may be within one century, the Early Neolithic LBK (Linien Bandkeramik) started at Jistebsko, Czech Republic [
Case 9:
During continuous glacier retreat in the Alps EARLY/MIDDLE NEOLITHIC boundary in Central Europe [
Case 10/11:
This time-span that started ~6400/6300 yr B.P. marks, apart from Cases 5/6, one of the most spectacular intervals throughout Holocene in Central Europe.
Hoyles Comet [
This is also the time when the RCC 2 interval (~6000-5000 yr B.P.) started a significant period that was characterized by North Atlantic ice-rafting, continuous Alpine Glacier Advance, and strengthened westerlies over the Atlantic [
In lower latitudes, it marked the end of the early/mid Holocene humid period in tropical Africa with the beginning of a long-termed trend of increasing rainfall variability across the Mediterranean/Levant and aridifica- tion (droughts) in Africa.
The UBAID C., Mesopotamia collapsed after the first third of RCC 2 that owns a decreasing solar output [
Case 12:
Contemporaneously with an acid event and the lifetime of “ӦTZI” the “ICE-MAN”, Ӧtztaler Alpen, Austria (~5200 yr B.P, [
Case 13:
Hoyle’s Comet [
Case 14:
This interval is significantly related to RCC 3 (~4200-3800 yr B.P) which appears less wide-spread. However, it provided a temperature fall throughout Eurasia, glacier retreat in Europe, and arid conditions in lower latitudes with distinct migration of the intertropical convergence zone [
The end of the AKKADIC C. under SARGON of AKKAD and the beginning of RCC 3 originated from an extreme and long-lasting drought in the Near/Middle East. It led to the collapse of this CULUTURE verified by an abrupt increase of δ18O isotopes in benthic foraminifera recovered from sediments of the Shaban-Deep/ Northern Red Sea (
The “GILGAMESH”-Epos as oldest written dating in “CUNEIFORM”-character, deals with the “DELUGE” on claystone
“The weather looked terrible… The ANNUNAKI (spirits of depths) raised up their torches to inflame the Country by their horrible brightness… Because of ADAD (God of weather) the sky fell into oppression, all brightness changing in darkness… The Country, the wide, broke like a pot… The southern storm blew for one day going to dip the mountains into water… Like a battle to subject human beings
…Nobody can see each other… By this ‘DELUGE’ the Deities frightened… The Deities remained weeping… Six days and seven nights continued the winds, the ‘DELUGE’… The hurricane eroded the country… On the approaching seventh day the hurricane stopped the ‘DELUGE’… Looking around for one day there was silence… And mankind was completely transformed into soil”
Thus, not only impact insiders may read evidence of typical impact features like wildfire [
The Old EGYPTION KINGDOM developed after the hazardous period RCC 2 and ended with the beginning of RCC 3, followed by the first INTERMEDIATE PERIOD that relates to a drought in low latitudes while in Central Europe the Early Bronze AGE rose up in connection with increased access to ore deposits in the European Alpine Regions favored by glacier retreat [
Case 15:
An aerosol-event and a gigantic eruption of the Mega-Volcano SANTORINI, Aegean Sea (3640 yr B.P., [
This INTERVAL includes the NEW EGYPTIAN KINGDOM that presents a period of chaotic social conditions [
All this fits to the fact that PHARAOH ECHNATON [
Modern excavations exhibit amazing evidence on ECHNATON’S Capital AMARNA [
However, it surprisingly reveals suffering of population: there are definite indications on severe diseases (anaemia, parasites , infections, genetic defects concerning spinal cord) accompanied by a high death rate of children and young people (15 - 20 yr). ECHNATON’S wife NOFRETETE disappeared in her 12th year of reign, her daughter followed two years later and ECHNATON died in his 17th year of reign, his corpse was never found [
After ECHNATON’S death the former deities were re-introduced.
Thus, it seems realistic to relate the chaotic AMARNA-Interval as also being confirmed for the Nile-Delta, to effects of aerosols, environmental pollution, ashes and acids of SANTORINI products.
The period of the NEW EGYPTIAN KINGDOM and that of the HÜGELGRÄBER C. in Central EUROPE cover the first third of RCC4.
RCC4 (3500-2500 yr B.P) exhibits the same basic pattern like RCC2 concerning glacier advance in Europe, cooling over the northeast Mediterranean is related to winter time continental polar outbreaks and pronounced aridity in East Africa. δ10Be-MAXIMA indicate lower solar activity, may be in connection with SANTORINI V.
During the Dynasty of ECHNATON the UGARIT C. collapsed in connection with the ingression of the MARITIME NATIONS that moved along the eastern Mediterranean Coast [
The UGARIT C. had used character-writing as a precursor of the ancient Hebraic writing [
The JEWS’DEPORTATION by the Assyrians took place in 587 yr B.C. and might had been a delayed chance to be refaced with the subject of “DELUGE” [
Case 16:
Hoyle’s Comet [
At the end of RCC 4 the EGYPTIAN KINGDOM and ASSYRIAN KINGDOM ran out while the SUM- ERIAN C. was replaced by the PERSIAN EMPIRE [
During the 6th and 5th century B.C. a significant spiritual development happened which gave rise for: a. the Philosophical Systems in Greece (Heraklit, Thales, Pythagoras followed by Plato and Socrates), b. the Systems in China (Lao-tse, Kungfuzius et al.), c. Buddhism in India (Buddha), d. the Hinduistic Religion in India (Bhagavadgita, Upanischads), and e. Zoroaster (Zarathustra) in Persia. This exorbitant concentration of spiritual activities through moderate latitudes would be possibly unique in Human History. Jaspers [
Case 17:
(from here on see
Three acid events and a volcanic outbreak occurred during the interval ~2300-2000 yr B.P. There is the rise of the SELECEUDS, the PTOLEMEANS’ rise and fall, and ALEXANDER the GREAT. Its end defines the beginning of the ROMAN EMPIRE and the PRE-ROMAN/ROMAN IRON AGE b. The interval also houses Emporer ASHOKA’S Buddhistic Missions between Far and Middle East, and Qin Dynasty in China.
Case 18:
Hoyle’s Comet [
The end of this time-span relates to the rising ISLAMIC RELIGION [
The following short-lived RCC 5 (~1200-1000 yr B.P.) seems less important, but nevertheless of global-scale teleconnection: winds over the North Atlantic and Sibiria were weak, temperature fall in Eurasia, increase of Atlantic deep water production, and changes of solar output [
This short interval owns the drought-related collapse of the MAYA C. [
Case 19:
This interval is significantly dominated by a temperature maximum (~1100-1255 yr A.D.) in Central Europe (
There appears a massive coincidence of the EMPEROR/PONTIFICATE INTERCHANGE in Europe with a great number of outstanding historical occurrences in the Northern Hemisphere, like: a. the activities of the HANSE, b. such of the MARITIME CAPITALS (Venice, Genus, Pisa), c. the CRUSADER'S ENDEAVORS, d. beginning of the EAST-COLONIZATION, and e. the extraordinary extension of the MONGOLIAN EMPIRE (YUAN DYNASTY) under DSCHINGIS KHAN [
At the end of this thermal maximum (glacier retreat) and, contemporaneously with an aerosol-event, the gold/ quartz dikes in the Hohe Tauern, Austria were discovered [
Case 20:
The RCC 6 (~1350-1800 yr AD.) followed with features like: cool poles, wet tropics, glacier advance in the Northern Hemisphere, strengthened westerlies over the North Atlantic and Sibiria [
Climate changes yield the fastest and strongest onset of any in the Holocene except of the 8k-Event [
The most important event relating to historical evidence concerns the so-called “LITTLE GLACIATION” [
The LAKI-ERUPTION, Iceland (1783) produced large volumes of SO2 and HF with catastrophic influence on agriculture, death rate of animals and people as well as politics in Europe (French revolution) (TV ARTE, 2014, [
Case 21 with open end
Temperature on the Earth began to significantly increase under additional influence of mankind (
National power strategies and unreflected aggressive exploitation of natural resources have created a world of one-sided materialistic over-production, increasing environmental pollution, decreasing number of Species as well as overregional refugee streams and climatic hazards under further continuous temperature rise (see RE- PORTS TO AND OF THE CLUB OF ROME: the last one [
Uncontrolled use of IT provides the way to hyper-capitalism increasing, global confusion and increasing collapse events. It is realistic that “Homo Sapiens Species” would be the first species in Earth History to destroy and pollute wide realms of Earth’s surface on global scale.
Under such dusky aspects we are looking forward with mixed feeling to possibly meet Hoyle’s Comet (9) to be expected about ~2100 yr A.D.
“Der intuitive Geist ist ein heiliges Geschenk und der rationale Verstand sein treuer Diener. Wir haben eine Gesellschaft geschaffen, die den Diener verehrt und das Geschenk vergessen hat”.
Albert Einstein
Compilations of three Austrian authors [
Inspite of the mythologic language, the text of the Myths surprisingly appears realistic: starting with the observation of approaching extraterrestrial bodies, mentioning the impact, the following earthquakes and faulting, supercyclonic whirlstorms (wildfires), the effect of hot/melted ejecta over long distances, destruction of fauna and flora (including human beings), and Towns!, and finally long-lasting flooding, darkness (sintwinter) as well as environmental pollution, as follows (transl. Koch, Schneider):
Observation of approaching bolides:
… “and the stars in the sky fell to Earth, as late figs drop from a fig-tree when shaken by a strong wind” (Apc. 6, 13), “Then I saw another mighty angle coming down from Heaven,… His face was like a sun, and his legs were like fiery pillars” (Apc. 10, 1). “A giant star, blazing like a torch, fell down from Heaven, on one third of the rivers, and on the springs of water” (Apc. 8, 10). “A gigantic mountain looking like a huge rock boulder, that burst in fire storms”,… (Apc. 8, 8).
For further reading, the “Revelation of John” generally points to seven major “trumpets” (extraterrestrial bodies), in each case accompanied by a “fire-work” of smaller fragments.
The Impact:
“But then, the angel took the pan, filled it with glowing fire from the altar, threw it to the ground. What a noise and quaking” (Apc. 8, 5). “… As this star received a key that opened the door to the springs of the abyss. Smoke ascended from the spring, so as coming through the chimney of a gigantic furnace, and darkening the Sun and the Sky…” (Apc. 9, 1-2). “… there was a massive darkness by dust and soot through whole Egypt for three days” (2. Mose, 10, 22).
Shock Wave, Brecciation, Earthquakes and Faulting:
“… and that happened at the hour when the Earth commenced to quake. One tenth of all houses broke down, 7000 people were killed”… (Apc. 11, 13). “… thundernoise and a tremendous earthquake occurred, as has never been since human beings live on Earth”… (Apc. 16,18). “The Islands changed their position, coastlines disappeared, mountains were never found” (Apc. 16, 20).
Super-cyclonic Whirlstorms and Heatstorms (Wildfires):
“A third of the Earth was burnt out, a third of the trees was burnt out, and all the green grass was burnt out…” (Apc. 8, 7). “…to let human beings burn. They dried out in the heat…” (Apc. 16, 8).
Ejecta:
“… and out of the soot fell grasshoppers, giant vermins down to the Eath…” (Apc.9, 3)… “The bodies of the grasshoppers looked like the bellies of wild horses that rush into a battle” (Apc. 9, 7). “… and a gigantic hail including boulder of hundred weight came down from Heaven over human beings…” (Apc. 16, 21).
“….Red and black dust like the soot from the furnace was raised over the whole land of Egypt”… “and the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt”… “The stones that fell upon Egypt were hot”… “Hail and fire were intermingled”… “The hail was accompanied by a rolling thunder, and it smashed everything that was in the open country, every man and animal, and everything growing in the field, and it stripped every tree” (2. Mose 9, 23-25).
Explosive Ascent of Groundwater:
“… break up all springs of the deep abyss…” (1. Mose 7, 11). “… at this hour the Lord opened the springs of the abyss [
Acid Rain and Environmental Pollution/Flooding:
“… Jehove let rain down burning sulfur on Sodom and Gomorra out of the Heaven. Thus, he overthrew these Cities and the entire plain, and also the vegetation in the land, and he saw dense smoke rising from the land like from a furnace (1. Mose 19, 24-25). “… and a rain came on Earth 40 days and 40 nights” (1. Mose 7, 12). “… and the water remained 150 days on the Earth” (1. Mose 7, 24), “… there got drowned all flesh, all animals creeping on Earth, the birds, the cattle and all what has moved on the Earth, and all human beings” (1. Mose 7, 21). “… and the water became abundant and rose up so much on Earth that all high mountains were covered beneath the whole sky” (1. Mose 7, 19). “and the water regressed step by step after 150 days” (1. Mose 8, 3). “… and all the water in the stream changed into blood” (2. Mose 7, 20),… and the fishes in the stream died and the stream owned a strong smell, so that the Egyptians could not drink water from the stream, and there was blood in whole Egyptian Land” (2. Mose 7, 21). The “blood” means nitric acid (HNO3)! “…Look, I will plague your whole area with frogs” (2. Mose 7, 27). Even the much younger KORAN mentions the “DELUGE”: “…and oh, Heaven, keep back your rain” (KORAN 11, 45)., probably a younger event!
When comparing the high number (~180) of “DELUGE” references all of them reveal similar significant contents of hazardous events, i.e.
“The ‘Rare Event’ in Geology is defined as a spasm, episode or punctuation of such of a low rate of occurrence that it has taken place at most a few times through all of Earth History. There is no known physical law that permits to relegate such highly improbable events into the realm of the impossible” [
P.E. Gretener
Some of the following parameters to be discussed, mainly the first of them, run under this aspect.
Hoyle’s Comet:
This Comet concept was primarily submitted by Clube and Napier [
The circumstances for such an event lie in necessity of gravitationally initiated Comet deviation from its own orbit by meeting both a molecule cloud/material accumulation in the Universe and consequently passing closely a planet of our Solar System in order to meet a position of being so close to the Sun as does the Earth. This has to be the condition for losing solid fragments after warming up, to remain in the Earth’s orbit as potential bolides for impacting the Earth.
The authors postulate a time-span of several decades to one century for all fragments per passage through the Inner Solar System all ~1600 yr periodically. That means no definite impact date, rather a temporal variation during one passage. By assuming i.e. a bolide diameter of ~100 meters, see Tunguska type [
Clube and Napier focus Rise and Fall of Cultures on a bundle of such “Tunguska-Events”. They relate the collapse of Cultures to short intervals owning strong hazardous events when Religions and Cultures undergo stress situations with dark psychic character while balanced rise and constructive growth originate tolerant Religions and peaceful pathways (see Syncretism in TANG Dynasty, China).
However, as modern climate records through Holocene reveal [
Acceptance of Hoyle’s Comet depends on reliable facts: If coincidence of the Comet with RCCs would be low, it would have had no relevance as parameter for this paper. But there appears a massive coincidence with climate variation, tektite fall, acid events, partial extinction of Mammals, and the respective influence on Cultures. So it should be seriously accepted in spite of temporal variation of possible bolide impacts during 100 years per Comet passage.
Rapid Climate Change (RCC):
Majewski et al.’s compilation and interpretation of Holocene climate variation represents a substantial approximation for serving as a framework for additional data available in the future. Highly resolved sampling and use of published proxy data of geographic record distribution are a useful base for latitude zone discrimination like high l. (North/Central Europe), middle l. (Southern Europe, Mediterranean/Levant, North Africa), and low 1 (Tropical Africa).
For recognition of climate-controlled time-spans. it deals as an excellent data base for this paper by application of cosmogenetic isotopes verifying solar activity variation (10Be), orbital solar variation, temperature variation (180), glacier fluctuation, Green House gases (CO2, CH4, NOX , etc.) to be applied to the definite latitude zones.
The RCC-dating involves uncertainties of less 500 yr, similar to calibrated radiocarbon ages of the Cultures presented [
Aerosols and Acid Events:
Both can reliably be analyzed from ice?cores by ~170 yr analytical uncertainty [
By discriminating acid events from aerosols, one has to focus on nitric oxide (NOX) generated by impact processes from nitrogen air molecules under high energy, and by modern human technology as well, to originate the most aggressive nitric acid (HNO3). Meanwhile both can analytically be distinguished [
Extremely high acidity (pH = 0 - 1) is to be expected in impact centers [
However, in
In cases without any indication of contemporary volcanism, acid events preserved in ice-cores are interpreted as of impact origin.
Tektites/Microtektites:
As condensation/ melting products of impacting meteorites onto SiO2-rich surface sediments/ rocks exposed in the target area, tektites provide reliable impact event criteria [
Most relevant is the Austral-Asian strewn field (Australia, Indic Ocean, South China, Thailand, Lao, Cambodia) covering 50 Mio square kilometers, owning some 100 Mio tons only of microtektites [
The data very probably represent one of the strongest and most hazardous impact events throughout Holocene (see
Large Mammals and their robbery enemies:
Former publications report an extinction wave of half of all large Mammals species’ of more than five kilogram body weight shortly after the end of Pleistocene. There was a total extinction of this animal group in America and Europe with a body weight of more than 1000 kilogram (3/4 of species) that died abruptly [
European Mammoth finds date on ~10000-9000 yr B. P., a young Mammoth found in Siberia reveals ~9600 yr B.P. ± 300 yr (web) and ~9730 yr B. P. ± 100 yr [
One reason for mass extinction lies in the decrease/stop of photosynthesis of plants as common food for Mammals, caused by ashes, dust, soot that circulated in the atmosphere/stratosphere over months in the Northern Hemisphere, even years around the globe which darkened the Sun (
Role of Myths in Modern Geosciences:
The biblical quotations cited above, appear surprisingly realistic despite of their mythological origin. They represent prehistoric sources orally surrendered down to the first Sumerian writing in “Cuneiform character” published in the GILGAMESH-Epos. The observers of the “APOCALYPSE” do obviously not have a vision relating to future they describe realistic processes on Earth during impact “Rare Events” in the language of their time and ethnologic position.
According to the frequency of impacts on Earth [
Hence, Myths provide a serious tool to study subjects in transitional fields of Science.
It is amazing how human mind diverges in the interpretation of “JOHN’S REVELATION”.
So did the German Theologian and Psychotherapist E. Drewermann [
The Myth of ATLANTIS
Studies of the Tollmanns [
earthquakes and flooding ~9000 yr before his time (~11,500 yr B.P.). This is just the time when the last glaciations ended (Younger Dryas) followed by sea level rise.
The relevant area is to be assumed on the AZORES PLATFORM located in the western prolongation of the Mediterranean Sea (AZORES FAULT ZONE) as an eastern part of the MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE (Eastern Rift Zone).
The area is characterized by missing magnetic stripe patterns obviously destroyed by geologic processes (
Therefore, since the time of ATLANTIS’ collapse and sea level rise after the younger Dryas glaciation coincide (if Plato’s issue is true), this would be a simple explanation of the ATLANTIS problem.
Certainly, volcanism in context with plate tectonics could have played an additional role just without any impact.
Generally speaking, there does exist an overwhelming complex coincidence, relation, and dependence of Rise and Fall of Cultures with very frequent natural phenomena in the Northern Hemisphere throughout the last 15,000 yr.
Obviously, the complete event-scenario exhibits a hierarchy of the parameters used, as follows:
・ Hoyle’s Comet (0 - 8) and other extraterrestrial bolides cause impacts on land and sea (initiating Tsunamis) à triggering earthquakes and possibly volcanism, wildfires of overregional extension à ejecta like rock boulders, ashes, dust, soot, and gases generating environmental pollution and decreasing solar energy (sint winter, cosmic winter), and temperature à preventing photosynthesis followed by partial/complete mass extinction of flora and fauna (including Human Cultures). Major impacts may trigger plate tectonic processes while Green House Gases initiate temperature increase.
・ Mega-Volcanism (i.e. Santorini, Greece; Hekla, Iceland) generates earthquakes, tsunamis, ejecta (ashes, dust, gases like SO2, CO2, HCl, HF) causing environmental pollution and temperature decrease (sintwinter), collapse of Human Cultures à refugee migration, wars à later Green House effect generating temperature increase, drought with similar consequences. In cases of major impacts onto carbonate target rocks (see JWS) tremendous volumes of CO2 reinforce the Green House effect.
・ Apart from temperature change of cosmic origin (solar activity, Earth orbit), DO-Events (abrupt change of oceanic currents), Heinrich-EVENTS (melting processes in the North Atlantic), and Green House Effects (CO2, CH4, NOX, and others) contribute to significant temperature increase. This implies a higher availability of thermal energy for flora and fauna to be used for progressive activities.
There results an increased ice-melting in higher latitudes, glacier retreat in alpine regions initiating higher mobility concerning migration of peoples and exploration of ore deposits, and water deficit, droughts, and wars in lower latitudes.
Since the end of the last glaciation, temperature-related sea level rise amounts up to some 120 meters mainly concerning coastal areas of huge extension and former submerged land corridors which has had an global influence of shelf-situated Cultures and animal migration.
In many cases temperature decrease meets mega-volcanic and impact events with regard to ejecta into the atmosphere and stratosphere to generate sintwinter, glacier advance including restricted mobility and access to specific rock and ore deposits (AHS) followed by chaotic migration and collapse of Cultures.
The current temperature increase since 1880 yr A.D. is definitely characterized by additional human contribution of the Green House gases CO2, CH4, NOX, and others) (
・ Plate Tectonics is mainly directed by magmatic processes in the Earth’s Upper Mantle. Sea level rise and fall interplays with Plate Tectonics which may initiate tsunamis predominantly in the Circum-Pacific and generates the strongest Mega-Volcanic outbreaks at all. Mostly concerned are Cultures on plate margins and continental fault zones.
Most of the relevant boundaries and significant intervals are caused/defined by natural events as follows:
・ 14,400 yr B.P: Beginning of early Neolithic Setting in the Near/Middle East (NATUFIAN) relates to Hoyle’s Comet (0), an aerosol and an acid event, furthermore on DO-Event 1, and CH4-Peak indicating increasing temperature.
・ 11,500 yr B.P: The Paleolithic/Mesolithic b. in Central Europe coincides with an acid event, droughts in lower latitudes (Red Sea), DO-Event O, and a CH4-peak (temperature rise). This is the end of the Younger Dryas connected with Sea Level Rise, the possible destruction of ATLANTIS, and the interruption of the ABU HUREYRA C., Syria.
・ 9600 yr B.P: The probably most catastrophic period throughout Holocene happened in Mid-Mesolithic. It exhibited Hoyle’s Comet (3), impact events (tektites), acid events, mass extinction (preferably Large Mammals including Mammoth), temperature decrease (sintwinter), sapropelitic sediments in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (oxygen deficit). It led to the collapse of all NATUFIAN Cities in Southern Jordan, and correlates with the beginning of RCC 1-Interval when the Cultures of AIN GHAZAL, CATAL HÜYÜK, and CAYӦNÜ began to develop.
・ 7500 yr B.P: The Mesolithic/Neolithic b. in Central Europe coincides with Hoyle’s Comet (4), several volcanic outbreaks (Hekla), the end of CHAVDAR, KARANOVA C., Bulgaria and LEPENSKI VIR, and the first AHS-import from source areas in the High Balkan Mts. immediately to Central Europe (excavations of EITZUM and ESBECK-1) during glacier retreat.
・ 7100-7000 yr Cal. B.P. The Early Middle Neolithic b. can be well defined at Herxheim, West-Germany. Obviously an abrupt drought over Central Europe caused not only a dramatic glacier retreat in the Swiss Alps comparable with our modern situation [
・ 6400-6000 yr B.P: The middle /Younger Neolithic b. in Central Europe relates to Hoyle’s Comet (5), several volcanic outbreaks (Hekla, Mt. Mazama) that very probably caused sintwinter conditions and glacier advance in the European Alpine Regions. This stopped the AHS-export from Bulgaria to Central Europe. It led to the collapse of local cultures (KARANOVA C.) while north of the Alpine Ranges (Carpathian Mts., Alps) the Younger Neolithic C. continued in a significantly differentiated way. These processes introduced to the RCC 2 interval when, accompanied by reduced solar activity, repeatedly, heavy flooding periods occurred in the Near/Middle East (Mesopotamia) as well as droughts in low latitudes (compare [
・ 4800-4600 yr B.P: The Late/End Neolithic b. correlates with Hoyle’s Comet (6) and a Hekla outbreak. This is also the time of King GILGAMESH, the end of Neolithic in Slovakia and Rumania, possibly under influence of volcanic activity and environmental pollution in moderate latitudes as well as the rise of the UGARIT C.
・ 4240 yr B.P: End-Neolithic/Early Bronze Age b.
With the beginning of RCC 3 a temperature increase brought drought in lower latitudes (collapse of the AKKADIC C., end of the Old EGYPTIAN KINGDOM). Further glacier retreat allowed access to more ore deposits in alpine regions for the exploitation of Cu, Zn, Sn, etc.
・ 3600 yr B.P: The Early Bronze Age/Hügelgräber Culture b. correlates with the mega-volcanic outbreak of Santorini, Greece and with the end of the MINOAN C. by a tremendous fall-out of pumice ashes and by tsunamis, the HYKSOS invasion, the NEW EGYPTIAN KINGDOM and the JEWS’ (ARAMAEIC) MIGRATION to Palestine followed while the MARITIME NATIONS appeared along the East Mediterranean Coast most probably as a result of environmental pollution of their Greek Homeland.
The EL AMARNA C. (ECHNATON), Egypt provides an excellent example for the importance of environmental pollution by mega-volcanism in connection with dramatic social and religious disorder initiated by ejecta (ashes, dust, soot, gases) and restricted solar energy which generated glacier advance in Alpine Regions.
・ 3200-3100 yr B.P: The Hügelgräber C./Younger Bronze Age b. coincides with the end of the NEW EGYPTIAN KINGDOM and that of the MARITIME NATIONS, all of them correlating with Hoyle’s Comet (7) and another HEKLA outbreak under conditions of decreased solar energy and glacier advance preventing further ore exploration in alpine areas.
・ 2800 yr B.P: The younger Bronze Age/Pre-Roman Iron Age b. is the time of glacier retreat in alpine regions with improved exploration conditions for ore deposits (Cu, Zn, Pb, Sn, Fe, etc…). There occurred the deportation of the JEWS (BABYLONIAN PRISONSHIP), and the amazing coincidence and foundation of PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS and origin of World Religions (Jasper’s “ACHSENZEIT”) that indicate ideal life conditions in moderate latitudes (~700-400 yr B.C).
・ 1950 yr B.P = 0 yr A.D: The Pre-Roman iron Age/Roman Emperor episode b. reveals the end of the PTOLEMAEANS, the origin of CHRISTIANITY and GNOSIS without specific natural events.
・ 330 yr A.D: ROMAN EMPIRE/Migration of Nation b. exhibits increasing glacier retreat which provided favorable conditions for overregional MIGRATION.
・ 500 yr A.D: The end of Nations Migration/Rise of GERMANIC EMPIRES b. relates to Hoyle’s Comet (8) followed by a volcanic and acid event. Further glacier retreat initiated higher mobility and extension. The foundation of the ISLAMIC RELIGION and of the harmonic TANG DYNASTY (Syncretism) took place during this interval that ends with the beginning of RCC 5.
・ 710 yr A.D: TEUTONIC and GERMAN EMPIRES/FRANCONIAN EMPIRE b.
The FRANCONIAN EMPIRE mainly covers the RCC 5 interval that ended by a volcanic outbreak.
・ 920 yr A.D: The FRANCONIAN EMPIRE/MEDIEVAL EMPIRE b. coincides with the volcanic outbreak at the end of RCC 5 and that of TANG DYNASTY which was a tolerant and constructive episode along the Silk Road (compare Jasper’s “ACHSENZEIT”).
・ 1060-1250 yr A.D: EMPIRES and PONTIFICATES
A thermal maximum dominates this interval that obviously had a tremendous influence on international aggressive activities like Dschingis Khan’s Campaign to Europe, the extension of the HANSE, the SEA TOWNS, the CRUSADERS ENTERPRISES, and the EAST-COLONIZATION. The end of this interval coincides with an acid event and by discovery of the TAUERN GOLD DEPOSITS, Tauern Gold Deposits and the foundation of the THERAVADA BUDDHISTIC PAGODAFIELD AT PAGAN, MYANMAR.
・ 1460-1720 yr A.D: “LITTLE GLACIATION” in Central Europe, includes part of Late Middle Ages, ABSOLUTISM, and Age of “ENLIGHTMENT”.
This interval comprises the time of RELIGOUS WARS (1500-1670), a volcanic event and TAUERN GOLD EXPLOITATION. Around 1800 yr A.D. the beginning of LIBERALIZATION correlates with two acid events coinciding with the end of RCC 6. Laki Eruption (1783) triggered the French Revolution.
Since ~1890 yr A.D: we notice rising IMPERIALISM, INDUSTRIALIZATION, CAPITALISM contemporaneously running with significant temperature increase (
Since the sixties of the 20th century, we record growing GLOBALIZATION and a complex interfingering of worldwide problems with exponential temperature rise, damage of Nature and sea level rise (
Finally, it should be stressed that the results of this paper underline the assumption of Clube, Napier, and Hoyle that the natural processes dealt with, do not have only strong influence on Rise and Fall of Cultures but also on SPRITUAL/PSYCHIC EVIDENCE with regard to RELIGION and PHYLOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. See correlations, thereby we do not absolutely need Hoyle’s Comet (9) that is to be re-expected ~2100 yr A.D, if the other natural processes have another definite source, what we cannot know.
A nice analogy from out the field of CRYSTALLOGRAPHY shows: the higher the formation temperature (thermal energy) of a series of Mixed Crystals, the higher the disorder in the crystal lattice―according to resembling human societies’ confusion.
“Fred Hoyle’s Aufforderung, solche neuen Denkräume zu betreten, zielt jedoch nicht ins aussenseiterische Abseits, sondern meint die scientific community, zu der Hoyle selbst als ein hoch geachtetes Mitglied gehört. Die Konsequenzen, die Clube/Napier’s und Hoyle’s Perspektiven eröffneten, wären erheblich. Denn wenn es richtig ist, dass die Lebensverhältnisse der Menschen auf der Erde immer wieder tiefgreifend kosmisch erschüttert worden sind, dann müssen wir die Evolutionsgeschichte des Menschen neu lesen, die Menschheitsgeschichte und die Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Naturgeschichte und Menschheitsgeschichte würden sich viel stärker durchdringen als bisher angenommen, der Ereignisablauf müsste aus den verschiedenen Blickrichtungen der Disziplinen ? als ein einziger beschrieben werden. Ein solcher Wechsel in der wissenschaftlichen Wahrnehmung kann von einzelnen und wenigen gefordert und gefördert werden, vollzogen aber wird er vom Streitgespräch der Wissenschaft selbst.”
Eberhard Sens [
Hence, this paper presents only a first approach; it makes clear that natural and cultural interrelations are to be more profoundly analyzed by according time-span related specialized scientists.
The authors do very much appreciate the publications of Mayewski et al. [
Werner Schneider,Elias Salameh, (2015) The Last 15,000 Years: Climate-Controlled and “Rare-Event”-Triggered/Rise and Fall of Holocene Cultures in the Near/Middle East and in Central Europe—Evidence and Background. Open Journal of Geology,05,743-769. doi: 10.4236/ojg.2015.511065