This paper presents a novel physical interpretation of the state of matter of the quark-gluon as the most fundamental building blocks in nature. Such a model is derived based on the assumption that dark matter and dark energy behave as a perfect ideal fluid at extremely high temperature. By the virtue of Boltzmann constant of the ideal gas law and NASA’s Cosmic Microwave Background Explorer (CMB) which estimate that the space has an average temperature close to 2.7251 Kelvin, then the equivalent mass-energy of the fundamental particle of the dark matter/dark energy is determined. Moreover, assuming a uniform space dark energy/dark matter density, then the critical temperature at which the dark matter has a unity entity per volume is identified as 64 × 1012 K. The calculated critical temperature of the quark-gluon plasma is found to be proportional to the temperature generated by colliding heavy ions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). Moreover, the individual critical temperatures of the quark-gluon plasma matter at which the elements of the Periodic Table are generated are explicitly determined. The generation temperature trend of the elements of the Periodic Table groups and Periods is then demonstrated. Accordingly, the phase diagram of the quark-gluon state matter is proposed. Finally, a new model of quark-gluon power generation plant is proposed and aims to serve humanity with new energy sources in the new millennium.
Recent astronomical observations by the cosmic microwave background (CMB), Supernova Cosmology Project, and High-z Supernova Search Team have provided strong evidence that our universe is not only expanding, but also expanding at an accelerating rate [
Using the Doppler Shift phenomena, scientists can learn much about the motions of galaxies. When scientists look closer at the speeds of galactic rotation, they find something strange. Based on Keplerian physics, the individual stars in a galaxy should act like the planets in our solar system―the farther away from the center, the slower they should move. On the contrary, the Doppler Shift reveals that the stars in many galaxies do not slow down at farther distances [
A quark-gluon plasma (QGP) can be defined as a phase of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) which exists at extremely high temperature and/or density. This phase consists of (almost) free quarks and gluons, which are several of the basic building blocks of matter. Recent analyses from the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), a 2.4-mile-circumference (atom smasher) at the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory, establish that collisions of gold ions traveling at nearly the speed of light have created matter at a temperature of about 4 trillion degrees Celsius―the hottest temperature ever reached in a laboratory, about 250,000 times hotter than the center of the Sun [
RHIC has created a new state of hot, dense matter out of the quarks and gluons that are the basic particles of atomic nuclei, but it is a state quite different and even more remarkable than had been predicted. When nuclear matter is heated beyond 2 trillion degrees, it becomes strongly coupled plasma of quarks and gluons. Experiments using highly energetic collisions between heavy nuclei have revealed that this new state of matter is a nearly ideal, highly opaque fluid [
The expansion of hot and dense matter created in a heavy ion collision at RHIC is controlled by an equation of state which describes the dependence of the pressure in the medium on its energy density. Knowledge of the equation of state is, for instance, indispensable for a correct hydrodynamic modeling of the expansion of the transient form of matter created in a gold-gold collision at RHIC [
This paper introduces a novel physical interpretation of the state of matter of the quark-gluon as the most fundamental building blocks in nature. Such a model is derived based on the assumption that dark matter and dark energy behave as a perfect ideal fluid at extremely high temperature as presented in Section 2. By the virtue of Boltzmann constant of the ideal gas law and NASA’s Cosmic Microwave Background Explorer (CMB) which estimated that the space has an average temperature close to 2.7251 Kelvin, then the equivalent mass- energy of the fundamental particle of the dark matter/dark energy is determined. The calculated critical temperature of the quark-gluon plasma is found to be proportional to the temperature generated by colliding heavy ions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). More- over, assuming a uniform space dark energy/dark matter density, then the critical temperature at which the dark matter has a unity entity per volume is identified as
This state of matter equation relates the pressure P, temperature T and the volume V of a substance behaves as an ideal gas [
As it can be seen easily that Equation (1) represents the energy associated with an ideal gas at given pressure P, temperature T and the volume V, that is
Note that both sides of the equation has the units of energy (work done by pressure P). Assume now that dark energy behaves like an ideal gas with a negative pressure (−P) that causes the universe to expand with a total volume V, then by dividing both side of the equation of state (5) by V, then
Defining the mass density as
Now by taking the ratio between the mass density and energy density then
It can be concluded that the ratio between the mass density and energy density are proportional to the product of the temperature T and dark energy-dark matter constant R (known as Universal gas constant).
The Boltzmann constant
The ideal gas law can now be expressed in terms of Boltzmann constant such that
where N is the actual number of entities (particles). Now dividing both sides of (10) by volume to get the energy density then
This shows that the ratio between the energy density and the entities density is proportional to the absolute temperature times the Boltzmann constant.
The ideal gas law can now be expressed in terms of Boltzmann constant such that
where N is the actual number of molecules. Now dividing both sides of (8) by the volume to get the energy density then
By taking the ration between the energy density
or
This shows that the ratio between the energy density and the molecular density is proportional to the absolute temperature times the Boltzmann constant. The simulation results demonstrate such a model.
WMAP [
Now the equation of state can be expressed as a function of the number of entities per cubic meter such that,
The temperature at which one entity would be generated called in this work as the critical temperature and equals to 64 Tetra Kelvin. It is desired now to calculate the critical temperature at which 5.9 protons per cubic meter were produced. By the virtue of the ideal state equation, it yields
It implies that 10.929 Trillion Kelvin degrees were needed to produce an equivalent 5.9 protons per cubic meter of mass-energy critical density. Furthermore,
Based on astronomical observations that the average density of dark matter and dark energy is approximately:
Now benefiting from (11) at which CMB temperature is T = 2.73 K, then
Since
Moreover, considering the lowest temperature in nature at Boomerang nebula which is 1 Kelvin, then the dark matter should be exactly equivalent to Boltzmann constant, which is
As it can be seen, the mass of the electron is much heavier than this candidate particle by 2.5796 billion times, meanwhile, the proton weighs 4.7365 trillion (
It is possible now to calculate the virtual momentum that dark matter particle possesses as follows:
Moreover, the dark matter particle mean life time
Additionally, based on the mean life time
Finally the virtual wave length of such dark matter particle would be
It can be concluded that it takes the dark matter particle 3.3357 ps to travel 1 mm. Meanwhile, it takes the light 3.3 ps to travel 1 mm.
As discussed before it has seen, the mass of the electron is much heavier than this candidate particle by 2.5796 billion times, meanwhile, the proton weighs 4.7365 trillion (
A proton has a mass of approximately 938 MeV/c2, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about 9.6 MeV/c2; much of the remainder can be attributed to the gluons quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCBE).
Based on the standard model [
The equivalent mass of the universe can be estimated based on the estimated age of the universe and the speed of light. One of the most of the acceptable estimated value of the age of the universe is considered as 13.7 billion years. Assume that after the Big Bang the universe is expanding such that it has a radius equivalent to the distance has been traveled by the light. Accordingly, it is possible to estimate the mass of the universe as follows
The equivalent mass of the universe can be presented in an equivalent number of protons and dark matter particles as follows:
In thermodynamics [
For an isothermal, reversible process, this integral equals the area under the relevant pressure-volume isotherm for an ideal gas. By convention, work is defined as the work the system does on its environment. As per Joule’s Law, Internal energy is the function of absolute temperature. In isothermal process the temperature is constant. Hence, the internal energy is constant. Moreover, the net change in internal energy is zero. Based on the ideal gas law governed by (2),
Since the universe is expanding with an homogenous CMB temperature of 2.73 K, then it is desired no to express the pressure to volume rate of change as follows:
By the virtue of (29), it is concluded that the universe rate of change of pressure with respect of its volume is inversely proportional to the negative of squared volume
universe pressure to volume rate of change
The critical temperature at which one entity would be generated is found to be equal to 64.478 Tetra Kelvin as addressed earlier in Section 3. Interestingly, the calculated critical temperature of the quark-gluon plasma is found to be proportional to the temperature generated by colliding heavy ions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).
Recent analyses from the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), a 2.4-mile-circumference (atom smasher) at the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory, establish that collisions of gold ions traveling at nearly the speed of light have created matter at a temperature of about 4 Trillion degrees Celsius―the hottest temperature ever reached in a laboratory, about 250,000 times hotter than the center of the Sun [
The objective in this section is to determine the individual critical temperature of the quark-gluon plasma matter at which the elements of the Periodic
displayed in
Based on these obtained primary results of QGP critical temperatures, it is interesting to test the QGP critical temperature trend of the elements of the Periodic
Let us examine the QGP critical temperature of the Periods and the groups separately. The critical temperature of Periods is found to have either linear trend with negative slope or quadratic decreasing trend. The first Period takes the linear form, followed by a quadratic form for the second Period, followed by a linear trend for the third Period, followed by quadratic form for the fourth Period, and then followed by a linear trend for all successive Periods fifth sixth and the seventh. Please refer to
On the other hand, let us now examine the QGP critical temperature of the groups. The critical temperature of groups is found to have negative power aggression trend. It is found out that both the power coefficient and negative exponent are decreasing as we go from left side of the groups A to the right side groups A. Similarly, groups B are showing a QGP decreasing QGP critical temperature pattern. Please refer to
Group | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Period | ||||||||||||||||||
1 | 1 H 64.0 | 2 He 16.1 | ||||||||||||||||
2 | 3 Li 9.29 | 4 Be 7.15 | 5 B 5.97 | 6 C 5.37 | 7 N 4.60 | 8 O 4.03 | 9 F 3.39 | 10 Ne 3.20 | ||||||||||
3 | 11 Na 2.80 | 12 Mg 2.65 | 13 Al 2.39 | 14 Si 2.30 | 15 P 2.08 | 16 S 2.01 | 17 Cl 1.82 | 18 Ar 1.61 | ||||||||||
4 | 19 K 1.65 | 20 Ca 1.60 | 21 Sc 1.434 | 22 Ti 1.35 | 23 V 1.27 | 24 Cr 1.24 | 25 Mn 1.17 | 26 Fe 1.15 | 27 Co 1.09 | 28 Ni 1.10 | 29 Cu 1.01 | 30 Zn 0.986 | 31 Ga 0.924 | 32 Ge 0.887 | 33 As 0.860 | 34 Se 0.816 | 35 Br 0.807 | 36 Kr 0.769 |
5 | 37 Rb 0.754 | 38 Sr 0.736 | 39 Y 0.725 | 40 Zr 0.707 | 41 Nb 0.694 | 42 Mo 0.672 | 43 Tc 0.658 | 44 Ru 0.638 | 45 Rh 0.627 | 46 Pd 0.606 | 47 Ag 0.598 | 48 Cd 0.574 | 49 In 0.562 | 50 Sn 0.543 | 51 Sb 0.530 | 52 Te 0.505 | 53 I 0.508 | 54 Xe 0.491 |
6 | 55 Cs 0.485 | 56 Ba 0.470 | * | 72 Hf 0.361 | 73 Ta 0.356 | 74 W 0.350 | 75 Re 0.346 | 76 Os 0.339 | 77 Ir 0.335 | 78 Pt 0.331 | 79 Au 0.327 | 80 Hg 0.321 | 81 TI 0.315 | 82 Pb 0.311 | 83 Bi 0.309 | 84 Po 0.309 | 85 At 0.307 | 86 Rn 0.290 |
7 | 87 Fr 0.289 | 88 Ra 0.285 | ** | 104 Rf 0.241 | 105 Db 0.241 | 106 Sg 0.238 | 107 Bh 0.237 | 108 Hs 0.239 | 109 Mt 0.234 | 110 Ds 0.229 | 111 Rg 0.226 | 112 Cn 0.226 | 113 Uut 0.227 | 114 Fl 0.223 | 115 Uup 0.224 | 116 Lv 0.220 | 117 Uus 0.219 | 118 Uuo 0.219 |
Lanthanide Series* | 57 La 0.464 | 58 Ce 0.460 | 59 Pr 0.457 | 60 Nd 0.447 | 61 Pm 0.445 | 62 Sm 0.429 | 63 Eu 0.424 | 64 Gd 0.410 | 65 Tb 0.406 | 66 Dy 0.397 | 67 Ho 0.391 | 68 Er 0.385 | 69 Tm 0.382 | 70 Yb 0.373 | 71 Lu 0.369 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Actinide Series** | 89 Ac 0.284 | 90 Th 0.278 | 91 Pa 0.279 | 92 U 0.271 | 93 Np 0.272 | 94 Pu 0.264 | 95 Am 0.265 | 96 Cm 0.261 | 97 Bk 0.261 | 98 Cf 0.257 | 99 Es 0.255 | 100 Fm 0.250 | 101 Md 0.250 | 102 No 0.249 | 103 Lr 0.246 |
Alkali metals | Lanthanides | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Alkaline earth metals | Actinides | |||
Transition metals | Nonmetals | |||
Post-transition metals | Halogens | |||
Metalloid | Noble gases | |||
1 | Atomic Number | |||
H | Symbol | |||
64.0 | Quark-Gluon Critical Temperature (TK) | |||
Period | Equation | R² |
---|---|---|
Period 1 | y = −47.867x + 111.84 | 1 |
Period 2 | y = 0.1078x2 − 1.7808x + 10.64 | 0.986 |
Period 3 | y = −0.1649x + 2.9508 | 0.9904 |
Period 4 | y = 0.0019x2 − 0.085x + 1.7029 | 0.9849 |
Period 5 | y = −0.0159x + 0.7691 | 0.997 |
Period 6 | y = −0.0156x + 0.5008; y = −0.0074x + 0.4749; y = −0.0046x + 0.364 | 1; 0.9982; 0.98 |
Period 7 | y = −0.0038x + 0.293; y = −0.0026x + 0.2839; y = −0.0017x + 0.2436; | 1; 0.9726; 0.9552 |
Group | Equation | R² |
---|---|---|
Group 1A | y = 63.055x−2.737 y = 10.356x−1.902* * (Excluding H) | R2 = 0.9981 R2 = 0.987* |
Group 2A | y = 8.4232x−1.776 | R2 = 0.9771 |
Group 3A | y = 6.9729x−1.867 | R2 = 0.9878 |
Group 4A | y = 6.3518x−1.821 | R2 = 0.9854 |
Group 5A | y = 5.4589x−1.73 | R2 = 0.9838 |
Group 6A | y = 4.8691x−1.669 | R2 = 0.979 |
Group 7A | y = 4.1472x−1.566 | R2 = 0.9737 |
Group 8A | y = 3.7873x−1.532 (Excluding He) y = 16.077x−2.199 | R2 = 0.9978 R2 = 0.9794** |
Group 3B | y = 1.5012x − 1.136 y = −0.1801x + 0.6443 (Has been calculated with 3B) y = −0.1823x + 0.6425 y = −0.1785x + 0.6361 y = −0.1761x + 0.6231 y = −0.1726x + 0.6173 y = −0.1646x + 0.5934 y = −0.159x + 0.5833 y = −0.149x + 0.559 y = −0.1447x + 0.5504 y = −0.1399x + 0.5367 y = −0.1351x + 0.526 y = −0.1346x + 0.5201 y = −0.1318x + 0.5134 y = −0.1236x + 0.4962 y = −0.1224x + 0.4909 | R2 = 0.9864 |
Group 4B | y = 1.4459x−1.247 | R2 = 0.9819 |
Group 5B | y = 1.3652x−1.206 | R2 = 0.9779 |
Group 6B | y = 1.3303x−1.198 | R2 = 0.9807 |
Group 7B | y = 1.2625x−1.161 | R2 = 0.9779 |
Group 8B1 | y = 1.2306x−1.148 | R2 = 0.9819 |
Group 8B2 | y = 1.1743x−1.122 | R2 = 0.9776 |
Group 8B3 | y = 1.1689x−1.136 | R2 = 0.9832 |
Group 1B | y = 1.0883x−1.077 | R2 = 0.9763 |
Group 2B | y = 1.0516x−1.067 | R2 = 0.9799 |
in
It is estimated that the Hadron Epoch covers the time from
temperature during this epoch is estimated to decrease from
Experimental results on relative abundances of various hadron species created in gold-gold collisions at RHIC and their comparison with particle abundances realized in a simple hadron resonance gas (HRG) suggest that the transition back to ordinary hadrons, the so-called chemical freeze out, occurs at temperatures of about (160 - 170) MeV [
Based on this research analysis [
CMB and WMAP confirm that the density of dark matter/dark energy is uniform, homogeneous and constant
through the universe. Since the density is at the same order of the proton-nitron, then it is very possible that dark energy/dark matter is converted into quarks at this QGP critical temperature. Similar to Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), it is proposed here to generate quark-gluon plasma and utilize its associated energy. Based on
Recent analyses from the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), a 2.4-mile-circumference (atom smasher) at the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory, establish that collisions of gold ions traveling at nearly the speed of light have created matter at a temperature of about 4 trillion degrees Celsius― the hottest temperature ever reached in a laboratory, about 250,000 times hotter than the center of the Sun [
A novel Quark-Gluon Plasma power generation reactor is proposed in this work as displayed in
will generate a high mechanical rotational at the turbines and then high induced electrical power at the electrical generators. It is remarkable to note here that the outcome energy of the QGP range [5516 to 18.9 MeV] would be much higher compared with the nuclear fission which generates 0.8 MeV per atomic unit and 3.5 MeV per atomic unit that can be produced from the nuclear fusion as tabulated in
In this work, a new physical interpretation of the state of matter of the quark-gluon as the most fundamental building blocks in nature. Such a model is derived based on the assumption that dark matter and dark energy
behave as a perfect ideal fluid at extremely high temperature. By the virtue of Boltzmann constant of the ideal gas law and NASA’s Cosmic Microwave Background Explorer (CMB) which estimate that the space has an average temperature close to 2.7251 Kelvin, then the equivalent mass-energy of the fundamental particle of the dark matter/dark energy is determined.
The average universe mass density of
Based on the standard model, the gluon energy that bonds quarks of protons and the quarks of the neutron is investigated. Each proton quark is tied by 928.4 MeV gluon energy, Meanwhile, each proton quark is tied by
Element | AW (Atomic Weight) | Equivalent Energy (MeV) | Critical Temperature (TK) |
---|---|---|---|
1 H - Hydrogen - [1.007 84; 1.008 11] | 1.00784 | 5515.874746 | 63.97642483 |
2 He - Helium - 4.002 602(2) | 4.002602 | 1388.876337 | 16.10902108 |
3 Li - Lithium - [6.938; 6.997] | 6.938 | 801.2567316 | 9.293456327 |
4 Be - Beryllium - 9.012 1831(5) | 9.01218315 | 616.8448989 | 7.154537244 |
5 B - Boron - [10.806; 10.821] | 10.806 | 514.4474555 | 5.966870257 |
6 C - Carbon - [12.0096; 12.0116] | 12.0096 | 462.889622 | 5.368871569 |
7 N - Nitrogen - [14.006 43; 14.007 28] | 14.00643 | 396.8976537 | 4.603457126 |
8 O - Oxygen - [15.999 03; 15.999 77] | 15.99903 | 347.4660154 | 4.030119326 |
9 F - Fluorine - 18.998 403 163(6) | 18.99840316 | 292.6098134 | 3.393864181 |
10 Ne - Neon - 20.1797(6) | 20.17976 | 275.4799464 | 3.195181707 |
11 Na - Sodium - 22.989 769 28(2) | 22.98976928 | 241.8083947 | 2.804638846 |
12 Mg - Magnesium - [24.304, 24.307] | 24.304 | 228.7326861 | 2.652978934 |
13 Al - Aluminium - 26.981 5385(7) | 26.98153857 | 206.0341811 | 2.389708053 |
14 Si - Silicon - [28.084; 28.086] | 28.084 | 197.9461332 | 2.29589802 |
15 P - Phosphorus - 30.973 761 998(5) | 30.973762 | 179.4783341 | 2.081697406 |
16 S - Sulfur - [32.059; 32.076] | 32.059 | 173.4027638 | 2.011229296 |
17 Cl - Chlorine - [35.446; 35.457] | 35.446 | 156.8334707 | 1.819048694 |
18 Ar - Argon - 39.948(1) | 39.9481 | 139.1585383 | 1.614044222 |
19 K - Potassium - 39.0983(1) | 39.09831 | 142.1831073 | 1.649124988 |
20 Ca - Calcium - 40.078(4) | 40.0784 | 138.7061161 | 1.608796758 |
21 Sc - Scandium - 44.955 908(5) | 44.9559085 | 123.657143 | 1.434249738 |
22 Ti - Titanium - 47.867(1) | 47.8671 | 116.1365365 | 1.347021232 |
23 V - Vanadium - 50.9415(1) | 50.94151 | 109.1274916 | 1.265726124 |
24 Cr - Chromium - 51.9961(6) | 51.99616 | 106.9140337 | 1.240053112 |
25 Mn - Manganese - 54.938 044(3) | 54.9380443 | 101.1888806 | 1.17364935 |
26 Fe - Iron - 55.845(2) | 55.8452 | 99.54515704 | 1.154584458 |
27 Co - Cobalt - 58.933 194(4) | 58.9331944 | 94.32916815 | 1.09408629 |
28 Ni - Nickel 58.6934(4) | 58.69344 | 94.71448946 | 1.098555477 |
29 Cu - Copper - 63.546(3) | 63.5463 | 87.48139867 | 1.014661751 |
30 Zn - Zinc - 65.38(2) | 65.382 | 85.02522413 | 0.986173565 |
31 Ga - Gallium - 69.723(1) | 69.7231 | 79.7313832 | 0.924772421 |
32 Ge - Germanium - 72.630(8) | 72.6308 | 76.53941859 | 0.887750101 |
33 As - Arsenic - 74.921 595(6) | 74.9215956 | 74.19915659 | 0.860606338 |
34 Se - Selenium - 78.971(8) | 78.9718 | 70.39372541 | 0.816468663 |
35 Br - Bromine - [79.901, 79.907] | 79.901 | 69.57508922 | 0.80697363 |
36 Kr - Krypton - 83.798(2) | 83.7982 | 66.33936295 | 0.769443735 |
37 Rb - Rubidium - 85.4678(3) | 85.46783 | 65.04341112 | 0.754412508 |
38 Sr - Strontium - 87.62(1) | 87.621 | 63.44505546 | 0.73587382 |
39 Y - Yttrium - 88.905 84(2) | 88.905842 | 62.52816552 | 0.725239181 |
40 Zr - Zirconium - 91.224(2) | 91.2242 | 60.93908419 | 0.706808062 |
41 Nb - Niobium - 92.906 37(2) | 92.906372 | 59.83571508 | 0.694010525 |
---|---|---|---|
42 Mo - Molybdenum - 95.95(1) | 95.951 | 57.93706375 | 0.671988828 |
43 Tc - Technetium - <98> | 98 | 56.72570616 | 0.657938776 |
44 Ru - Ruthenium - 101.07(2) | 101.072 | 55.00157515 | 0.63794127 |
45 Rh - Rhodium - 102.905 50(2) | 102.905502 | 54.02159356 | 0.626574855 |
46 Pd - Palladium - 106.42(1) | 106.421 | 52.237051 | 0.60587666 |
47 Ag - Silver - 107.8682(2) | 107.86822 | 51.53620968 | 0.597747882 |
48 Cd - Cadmium - 112.414(4) | 112.4144 | 49.45202042 | 0.573574204 |
49 In - Indium - 114.818(1) | 114.8181 | 48.41674966 | 0.561566513 |
50 Sn - Tin - 118.710(7) | 118.7107 | 46.82913338 | 0.543152386 |
51 Sb - Antimony - 121.760(1) | 121.7601 | 45.65632916 | 0.529549499 |
52 Te - Tellurium - 127.60(3) | 127.603 | 43.56574065 | 0.505301599 |
53 I - Iodine - 126.904 47(3) | 126.904473 | 43.80554186 | 0.508082958 |
54 Xe - Xenon - 131.293(6) | 131.2936 | 42.34112862 | 0.491097814 |
55 Cs - Cesium - 132.905 451 96(6) | 132.905452 | 41.82762349 | 0.485141874 |
56 Ba - Barium - 137.327(7) | 137.3277 | 40.48068382 | 0.469519259 |
57 La - Lanthanum - 138.905 47(7) | 138.905477 | 40.0208784 | 0.46418616 |
58 Ce - Cerium - 140.116(1) | 140.1161 | 39.67509233 | 0.460175526 |
59 Pr - Praseodymium - 140.907 66(2) | 140.907662 | 39.45221378 | 0.457590447 |
60 Nd - Neodymium - 144.242(3) | 144.2423 | 38.54014533 | 0.44701173 |
61 Pm - Promethium - <145> | 145 | 38.33875313 | 0.444675862 |
62 Sm - Samarium - 150.36(2) | 150.362 | 36.97156997 | 0.428818451 |
63 Eu - Europium - 151.964(1) | 151.9641 | 36.5817927 | 0.424297581 |
64 Gd - Gadolinium - 157.25(3) | 157.253 | 35.35143497 | 0.410027154 |
65 Tb - Terbium - 158.925 35(2) | 158.925352 | 34.97943616 | 0.405712488 |
66 Dy - Dysprosium - 162.500(1) | 162.5001 | 34.20994328 | 0.396787448 |
67 Ho - Holmium - 164.930 33(2) | 164.930332 | 33.70586318 | 0.390940825 |
68 Er - Erbium - 167.259(3) | 167.2593 | 33.23653276 | 0.385497249 |
69 Tm - Thulium - 168.934 22(2) | 168.934222 | 32.9070045 | 0.381675182 |
70 Yb - Ytterbium - 173.054(5) | 173.0545 | 32.12351718 | 0.372587826 |
71 Lu - Lutetium - 174.9668(1) | 174.96681 | 31.77242132 | 0.368515606 |
72 Hf - Hafnium - 178.49(2) | 178.492 | 31.1449208 | 0.361237478 |
73 Ta - Tantalum - 180.947 88(2) | 180.947882 | 30.72221207 | 0.356334649 |
74 W - Tungsten - 183.84(1) | 183.841 | 30.23873458 | 0.350726987 |
75 Re - Rhenium - 186.207(1) | 186.2071 | 29.85449644 | 0.346270362 |
76 Os - Osmium - 190.23(3) | 190.233 | 29.22268589 | 0.338942245 |
77 Ir - Iridium - 192.217(3) | 192.2173 | 28.92101389 | 0.335443272 |
78 Pt - Platinum - 195.084(9) | 195.0849 | 28.49589694 | 0.33051251 |
79 Au - Gold - 196.966 569(5) | 196.9665695 | 28.22366871 | 0.327355044 |
80 Hg - Mercury - 200.592(3) | 200.5923 | 27.71352242 | 0.321438061 |
---|---|---|---|
81 Tl - Thallium - [204.382; 204.385] | 204.382 | 27.19965165 | 0.31547788 |
82 Pb - Lead - 207.2(1) | 207.21 | 26.82843108 | 0.311172241 |
83 Bi - Bismuth - 208.980 40(1) | 208.980401 | 26.601151 | 0.30853611 |
84 Po - Polonium - <209> | 209 | 26.59865648 | 0.308507177 |
85 At - Astatine - <210> | 210 | 26.47199621 | 0.307038095 |
86 Rn - Radon - <222> | 222 | 25.0410775 | 0.290441441 |
87 Fr - Francium - <223> | 223 | 24.92878567 | 0.289139013 |
88 Ra - Radium - <226> | 226 | 24.59787258 | 0.285300885 |
89 Ac - Actinium - <227> | 227 | 24.48951191 | 0.284044053 |
90 Th - Thorium - 232.037 7(4) | 232.03774 | 23.95782343 | 0.277877211 |
91 Pa - Protactinium - 231.035 88(2) | 231.035882 | 24.06171351 | 0.27908219 |
92 U - Uranium - 238.028 91(3) | 238.028913 | 23.3548065 | 0.270883059 |
93 Np - Neptunium - <237> | 237 | 23.45619917 | 0.272059072 |
94 Pu - Plutonium - <244> | 244 | 22.78327543 | 0.264254098 |
95 Am - Americium - <243> | 243 | 22.87703376 | 0.265341564 |
96 Cm - Curium - <247> | 247 | 22.50655548 | 0.261044534 |
97 Bk - Berkelium - <247> | 247 | 22.50655548 | 0.261044534 |
98 Cf - Californium - <251> | 251 | 22.14788528 | 0.256884462 |
99 Es - Einsteinium - <252> | 252 | 22.05999684 | 0.255865079 |
100 Fm - Fermium - <257> | 257 | 21.63081402 | 0.25088716 |
101 Md - Mendelevium - <258> | 258 | 21.54697366 | 0.249914729 |
102 No - Nobelium - <259> | 259 | 21.46378071 | 0.248949807 |
103 Lr - Lawrencium - <262> | 262 | 21.21801223 | 0.246099237 |
104 Rf - Rutherfordium - <267> | 267 | 20.82067118 | 0.241490637 |
105 Db - Dubnium - <268> | 268 | 20.7429821 | 0.240589552 |
106 Sg - Seaborgium - <271> | 271 | 20.513355 | 0.237926199 |
107 Bh - Bohrium - <272> | 272 | 20.43793825 | 0.237051471 |
108 Hs - Hassium - <270> | 270 | 20.58933039 | 0.238807407 |
109 Mt - Meitnerium - <276> | 276 | 20.14173625 | 0.233615942 |
110 Ds - Darmstadtium - <281> | 281 | 19.78334236 | 0.229459075 |
111 Rg - Roentgenium - <280> | 285 | 19.50568142 | 0.226238596 |
112 Cn - Copernicium - <285> | 285 | 19.50568142 | 0.226238596 |
113 Uut - Ununtrium - <284> | 284 | 19.57436339 | 0.227035211 |
114 Fl - Flerovium - <289> | 289 | 19.23570659 | 0.223107266 |
115 Uup - Ununpentium - <288> | 288 | 19.30249724 | 0.223881944 |
116 Lv - Livermorium - <293> | 293 | 18.97310309 | 0.220061433 |
117 Uus- <294> | 294 | 18.90856872 | 0.219312925 |
118 Uuo - Ununoctium - <294> | 294 | 18.90856872 | 0.219312925 |
Average | 140.3485256 | 1.627846409 |
No. | Energy Source | Output Energy, MeV |
---|---|---|
1 | QGP of Hydrogen | 5515/atomic unit |
2 | QGP of Helium | 1389/atomic unit |
3 | QGP of Lead | 207/atomic unit |
4 | QGP of Gold | 197/atomic unit |
5 | Nuclear Fission | 0.8/atomic unit |
6 | Nuclear Fusion | 3.5/atomic unit |
7 | Hydrogen Ion annihilation | 938/atomic unit |
926 MeV gluon energy.
Moreover, this research has investigated the expansion of the universe based on the thermodynamics isothermal concept. It is concluded that the universe rate of change of pressure with respect of its volume is inversely proportional to the negative of squared volume
Furthermore, the individual critical temperature of the quark-gluon plasma matter at which the elements of the Periodic
Additionally, the QGP critical temperature trend of the elements of the Periodic
On the other hand, the QGP critical temperatures of the groups are investigated. The critical temperature of groups is found to have negative power aggression trend. It is found out that both the power coefficient and negative exponent are decreasing as we go from left side of the groups A to the right side of groups A. Similarly, groups B are showing a decreasing QGP critical temperature pattern. It noticed that the negative slope is increasing by going down from the top Period to the bottom Period. For example, Group 1A shows a power trend of
A new QGP phase diagram depicts that the Hardon Epoch is proposed in this work. The QGP phase diagram presents a critical point that separates the two phases: the hadron gas in which quarks are confined, and the quark-gluon plasma (QGP). Finally, a novel Quark-Gluon Plasma power generation reactor is proposed. It basically utilizes the output temperatures to heat up cold water and converts the water into a steam. The pressurized steam will generate a high mechanical rotational at the turbines and then high induced electrical power at the electrical generators. It is remarkable to note here that the outcome energy of the QGP range [5516 to 18.9 MeV] will be much higher compared with the nuclear fission which generates 0.8 MeV per atomic unit and 3.5 MeV per atomic unit that can be produced from the nuclear fusion. Future work will elaborate more on this QCD power plant analysis and design.
Murad AlShibli, (2015) Interpretation of Dark Matter and Quark-Gluon Plasma: The Generation of the Periodic