One great surprise discovered in modern physics is that all elementary particles exhibit the property of wave-particle duality. We investigated this problem recently and found a simple way to explain this puzzle. We proposed that all particles, including massless particles such as photon and massive particles such as electron, can be treated as excitation waves in the vacuum, which behaves like a physical medium. Using such a model, the phenomenon of wave-particle duality can be explained naturally. The key question now is to find out what kind of physical properties this vacuum medium may have. In this paper, we investigate if the vacuum can be modeled as an elastic solid or a dielectric medium as envisioned in the Maxwell theory of electricity and magnetism. We show that a similar form of wave equation can be derived in three cases: (1) By modelling the vacuum medium as an elastic solid; (2) By constructing a simple Lagrangian density that is a 3-D extension of a stretched string or a vibrating membrane; (3) By assuming that the vacuum is a dielectric medium, from which the wave equation can be derived directly from Maxwell’s equations. Similarity between results of these three systems suggests that the vacuum can be modelled as a mechanical continuum, and the excitation wave in the vacuum behaves like some of the excitation waves in a physical medium.
It is well known that all particles in nature have a peculiar property called the wave-particle duality [
Interestingly, it was later discovered that not only light exhibits wave-particle duality, other particles, such as electrons, also show wave-particle duality [
The question then is: Is the wave making up matter a physical wave or a probability wave? In the conventional theory of quantum mechanics, particles are treated as pointed objects. The wave property is only related to probability. That is, the quantum wave function gives the probability of finding a particle at a particular space and time. This interpretation is called “the Copenhagen Interpretation” [
We think it is more natural to regard the particle as a physical wave, more exactly, the excitation wave of the vacuum medium. This excitation looks like a wave in a microscopic view; but in a macroscopic view, it looks like a particle. This phenomenon is well known to physicists studying condensed matter. For example, the phonon is a vibrational excitation wave in a mechanical medium; but it can be treated as a quasi-particle in a macroscopic view. We know at least one particle, i.e., the photon, is indeed an excitation wave. In fact, we know it is an electromagnetic wave in the microscopic view. But it can also exhibit the property of a particle in a macroscopic view, such as in the case of the photo-electric effect.
We showed previously that this physical wave hypothesis can give remarkable results [
(a) The particle is a physical wave rather than a probability wave; it behaves just like a quasi-particle.
(b) The vacuum is a continuous medium, which can be excited by an energetic stimulation. The excitation wave can travel within this medium in long distance without energy loss (just like electrons in a superconductor or phonons in a superfluid).
(c) Different excitation waves of the vacuum medium make up different types of particles observed in the physical world. Both fermions and bosons are excitation waves of the same vacuum medium.
Based on these assumptions, one can explain a large number of quantum observations [
Here, we would like to point out the difference between our model and the aether hypothesis. The aether was hypothesized to fill in the space between matters: it is a medium for the propagation of light only [
In order to make our model convincing, we need to address two basic questions: (1) What are the properties of the vacuum medium? (2) Can we derive the wave equation for the particle based on the physical properties of the vacuum? The purpose of this paper is trying to answer these questions. Here, we will consider three cases: First, we will show that, the vacuum can be modelled conceptually as an elastic solid, based on which the wave equation for its excitation waves can be derived. Second, we will treat the vacuum as a 3-dimensional mechanical medium which is an extension from a 1-D (stretched string) and 2-D (rubber membrane) systems. We show that we can derive the proper wave equation by constructing a Lagrangian density generalized from the Lagrangian densities of the 1-D and 2-D systems. Third, we will model the vacuum as a dielectric system as envisioned by Maxwell. The wave equation obtained in this case has very similar form as that of an elastic solid. Results of our investigation suggest that the vacuum indeed behave like a continuous mechanical medium. Implications of these findings will be discussed in details.
Here we will model the vacuum conceptually as an elastic solid. It is well known that many different types of excitation waves can be excited in such a medium. Some of these excitation waves behave similarly to that of a photon. In the following, we will show how such photon-like wave equations can be derived if one regards the vacuum medium as an elastic solid.
For an elastic solid body, the displacement and velocity fields of the differential solid element, dV (=dxdydz), are denoted as ri and ui (i = 1, 2, 3) (see
where n = { n i} is the normal unit vector with respect to the solid element. As shown in Appendix A, the movement of this solid element can be described by the following equation:
Here we use the convention of summing over repeated indices when they occur once as subscript and once as superscript. If the deformation of the elastic body is small, we can neglect the second-order terms. Recall that the velocity vector ui is the time derivative of the displacement ri, we have
If the material in the solid is linear, isotropic and the deformation is small, the strain tensor eij can be related to the average of the deformation gradient ri,j [
where
where l and m are Lamé’s first parameter and Lamé’s second parameter. μ is also called the “shear modulus” [
Since there is no external force applied to the vacuum, the body force fi is zero here. Using the vector notation of the gradient and divergence operators, we can re-write the tensor equation of Equation (6) as the following:
Based on Helmholtz decomposition theorem [
where
This equation can be rearranged to become
Equation (9) will be satisfied if each bracketed term is equal to zero. Therefore, we can get two uncoupled wave equations:
Re-arranging the coefficients of Equations (10) and (11), we have
where
These wave equations have the identical form as that of the wave equation of light. We know that light is a transverse wave, so is the shear wave y described in Equation (13). These similarities suggest that it is a good analogy for modelling the motion of the excitation wave in the vacuum as a transverse wave propagating in an elastic solid. Furthermore, Equation (13) clearly suggests that the value of the wave speed is associated with the physical properties of the medium.
The wave equation as shown in Equation (13) or Equation (12) may be called the “four-dimensional Laplace equation”. We can derive the same wave equation if we assume that the vacuum is a 3-dimensional isotropic medium. The key is to construct a proper Lagrangian density for the system. Then, we can apply the Euler- Lagrange equation based on Hamilton’s principle. In order to determine what would be a proper Lagrangian density for the vacuum, we will examine what will happen in a 1-D system first. Then, we will extend the same analysis to a 2-D system. Finally, following the same extension method, we will obtain the generalized Lagrangian density for the 3-D continuum.
A good example of the 1-D continuum system can be a stretched string. Thus, in order to analyze the wave motion in a 1-D system, let us examine the propagation of wave along a string. For the string showed in the
Let us denote the mass density of the string as ρ. The kinetic energy (ΔT) for a very small segment of the string (length of Δx) is
For the entire string, the kinetic energy is
What about the potential energy V? Again, we will look at a small segment Δx of the string, and determine the potential energy in this segment (ΔV). The string is stretched under tension F1 between two points. For any parts of the string, the deviation from the equilibrium position is very small. As shown in
From the inset in
When Δϕ is small, we can ignore the higher terms. So,
and
Substituting Equations (15) and (16) into Equation (14), we have
This implies
Applying the Euler-Lagrange equation for 1-D system,
where
or
where
Now one can extend the 1-D system into a 2-D system, an example of which can be a stretched rubber membrane. We can follow the same procedure as that of the 1-dimensional string, except that the element to be considered is an area segment defined by ΔxΔy. The Lagrangian for the 2-D system is
Similar to the 1-D system, it can be shown that the kinetic energy (ΔT) and the potential energy (ΔV) over the area segment ΔxΔy are
and
where ρ is the density of the membrane per unit area. Substituting the above equations into Equation (20), we have
Then,
Applying the generalized Euler-Lagrange equation [
or
where
Now, by applying same procedures as the last two sub-sections, we can extend the 2-D system into the 3-D system. For a 3-D system, the Lagrangian density is defined as
By generalization of the 1-D and 2-D systems, it can be shown that
Thus,
Once we know the Lagrangian density of the 3-D system, we can apply the generalized Euler-Lagrange equation to obtain the equation of motion,
or,
where the coefficient
In Sections 2 and 3, we derived the wave equation by modelling the vacuum as an elastic solid or a 3-D mechanical continuum. They yield wave equations very similar to the wave equation of light. These results suggest that the vacuum medium could be treated as an elastic solid, and the propagating wave is just an excitation of the medium. However, there is a problem in regarding the vacuum as a true solid, since there is no rest mass in the vacuum. Thus, we cannot apply Newton’s law to calculate the kinetic energy of the vacuum. This means that, the Lagrangian density of the vacuum cannot be the same as that of the elastic solid. Therefore, the discussions in Section 2 and Section 3 can only serve as an analogy to demonstrate how a wave can be generated in a continuous mechanical medium. To study the wave propagation in the vacuum system, one needs to use a more realistic model.
We think the vacuum is more like a dielectric medium, which is responsible for giving rise to the electro- magnetic field. The physical nature of such a medium can be investigated by examining the assumptions behind the derivation of Maxwell’s equations. In the 19th century, there had been extensive studies on the physical natures of the electro-magnetic fields. It was strongly believed that the propagation of the electro-magnetic waves require a dielectric medium. We should take note from these classical studies.
In 1861-1862, Maxwell published his famous equations on electric and magnetic fields based on the earlier works of Coulomb, Ampère, Faraday and others. The early versions of Maxwell’s equations [
Here, E is electric field; J is electric current density; B is magnetic flux density, H is magnetic field, and ε is the permittivity. It is known that
where μ is the permeability. In free space, the permittivity is ε0 and the permeability is μ0.
This original set of Maxwell equations has a problem. In order to satisfy the condition of conservation of charge, the system should obey the continuity equation
But from Equation (27),
which implies
This means that Equation (27) did not satisfy the continuity equation. Thus, Maxwell was not satisfied with it.
To correct this problem, Maxwell thought an additional term
Then, Equation (27) now becomes
Taking the divergence of both sides of Equation (27A),
It is known that
This agrees exactly with the continuity equation.
With the addition of the displacement current, the final form of the Maxwell’s equations becomes:
From Equation (29), it is implied
One may notice that the vector potential A in Equation (32) is not unique. One can replace A with A + ÑX, (where X is any scalar function) and B will remain the same. This freedom is an example of “gauge transformation”.
At this point, we can write down Maxwell’s equations in the vacuum. In a free space,
From the above Maxwell’s equations, we can derive the wave equation of the electro-magnetic wave in a free space. It turns out that this wave equation is the same as that describing the propagation of light. This remarkable result allowed Maxwell to identify light as a kind of electro-magnetic wave. This conclusion was later confirmed in experiments conducted by Hertz.
We must point out that, the above Maxwell’s equations was based on the implicit assumption that the vacuum behaves like a dielectric medium. By comparing Equation (27C) with Equation (27A), it is clear that the right hand-side of Equation (27C) is originated from the displacement current in Equation (27A). That means although the current J has vanished in free space, the displacement current still remains. This is justifiable only if Maxwell’s assumption that the vacuum behaves like a dielectric medium is correct. If the vacuum does not behave like a dielectric medium, one cannot explain the presence of the displacement current term in the right hand- side of Equation (27C)!
Now let us consider that: What is the Lagrangian density in the electro-magnetic system as described by Maxwell’s equations? Previously, L is defined as
Here we use the covariant-contravariant four vector convention, the index
From Maxwell’s equations in the free space, one can show that both the electric field and the magnetic field can propagate as an oscillating transverse wave in the vacuum [
where
This looks exactly like the wave equations (Equation (25)) derived for a 3-D continuum in Section 3. (In fact, ψ can be any linear combination of Aμ, and Equation (35) will still hold.) So, there is strong similarity between wave propagation in the vacuum and wave propagation in a continuous mechanical system.
In this work, we conducted a comparative study of the motion of excitation waves in three different systems: (a) the vacuum is modelled as an elastic solid (discussed in Section 2); (b) the vacuum is modelled as a general 3-D continuum (discussed in Section 3); and (c) the vacuum is modelled as a dielectric medium as envisioned by Maxwell. The results are remarkably alike. The forms of their wave equations are identical (see Equations (13), (25), (35)). This similarity strongly suggests that the vacuum behaves like a continuous mechanical system, and the excitation wave in the vacuum follows similar rules as the excitation waves in a physical medium.
It is known in condense matter physics that the excitation wave in a solid can behave like a particle (called “phonon”). Such particle-like excitations are classified as “quasi-particles”. Light, as an excitation wave in the vacuum, can be regarded as a real particle (called “photon”). The particle properties of photon were clearly demonstrated in the studies of photo-electric effect and Compton scattering. In our previous papers, we showed it is well justified to hypothesize that all particles in nature are different excitation modes of the vacuum medium. They all obey the same wave equation; different solutions can represent different particles. One can identify the key particle properties, including energy, momentum, and rest mass (m), from the parameters of their wave functions. (For details, see Ref. [
Results of this work suggest that a free particle travelling through the vacuum is similar to an excitation wave propagating through a physical medium. Our work suggests that the physical meaning of the wave function is not just related to the probability of finding a particle; it can represent a real physical quantity. In fact, from Equations (13), (25), (35), one can see that the wave functions in all three model systems are closely related with the perturbation of the “field potential”, which is connected with the “strain” of the medium, (i.e., a very tiny displacement of the medium elements from its equilibrium position) (See Equation (8)). As we have shown in the elastic solid, this strain is related to a stress tensor of the medium. Similarly, in the study of classical electrodynamics, it is well known that the electro-magnetic field also possesses a stress tensor (called the “Maxwell stress tensor”) [
We would like to add that our hypothesis regarding the vacuum as a physical medium is not without basis. Investigation on the properties of the vacuum has a very long history [
Later, it was discovered in experiments using particle accelerators that many new particles can be created from collision. In order to explain these observations, it was assumed that the vacuum is full of all sorts of virtual particle & anti-particle pairs [
The above problems can be avoided if we assume that particles are excitations of the vacuum medium and the wave function represents a real physical wave. In this way, it is easy to see that excitation waves can be created or annihilated in any location of the medium. There is no need to assume an infinite sea of negative-energy electrons. We can completely remove the assumption of the existence of unlimited amount of virtual particle pairs in the vacuum.
We would like to thank Ms. Lan Fu for her valuable assistance in preparing this manuscript. In this collaboration, the analysis of wave motion in an elastic solid was mainly contributed by YKL, while DCC was mainly responsible for the overall hypothesis of this work.
Donald C.Chang,Yi-KuenLee, (2015) Study on the Physical Basis of Wave-Particle Duality: Modelling the Vacuum as a Continuous Mechanical Medium. Journal of Modern Physics,06,1058-1070. doi: 10.4236/jmp.2015.68110
For an elastic solid body with a volume of V and a surface of S as shown in
(where
where n = { n i} is the normal unit vector with respect to the surface S. Here we have adopted the convention of summing over repeated indices when they occur once as subscript and once as superscript. Substitute Equation (A2) into Equation (A1),
Using the divergence theorem (Green’s theorem) [
Recall that
Move all the terms to the left hand side
The above equation can be satisfied if the bracketed term is zero,
Applying the differentiation to the two terms on the left hand side of Equation (A5), and doing a simple rearrangement:
The bracket in the left hand side of Equation (A6) should be zero because it is the equation of continuity:
This is Equation (2) in the main text.