Psychology 2011. Vol.2, No.5, 411-415 Copyright © 2011 SciRes. DOI:10.4236/psych.2011.25064 Competitive Orientations and the Type A Behavior Pattern Bill Thornton1, Richard M. Ryckman2, Joel A. Gold2 1Department of Psychology, University of Southern Maine, Portland, USA; 2University of Maine, Orono, USA. Email: thornton@usm.maine.edu Received March 23rd, 2011; revised May 16th, 2011; accepted June 21st, 2011. Differences in competitive orientations were examined in relation to two components of the Type A behavior pattern, Achievement Strivings and Impatience-Irritability, that have differential implications for achievement performance and health. As expected, hypercompetitiveness was not related to Achievement Strivings, but posi- tively correlated with Impatience-Irritability. In contrast, personal development competitiveness related posi- tively to Achievement Strivings, but was not related to Impatience-Irritability. Hypercompetitiveness was not related to actual academic achievement either, but personal development competitiveness was positively corre- lated. Hypercompetitiveness was associated with greater self-reported health problems, whereas personal devel- opment competitiveness was associated with fewer health problems. Results further corroborate the discriminant validity of the hypercompetitive and personal development competitive construct and suggest negative psycho- somatic implications for the hypercompetitive individual. Keywords: Competition, Hypercompetitiveness, Type A, Health, Achievement Introduction The Type A behavior pattern is characterized by exaggerated achievement strivings, a heightened degree of competitiveness and hostility, and impatience associated with an aggressive struggle to achieve more in less time (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Although the Type A behavior pattern may be associated with greater achievement and success (Glass, 1977; Matthews, Helmreich, Beane, & Lucker, 1980; Waldron et al., 1980), it may also increase the risk for general health problems and ill- ness, including hypertension and coronary heart disease (Byrne, 1992; Friedman & Booth-Kewley, 1987; Friedman & Rosen- man, 1974; Jenkins, Zyzanski, & Rosenman, 1971; Price, 1982; Rosenman, 1993; Rosenman, Swan, & Carmelli, 1988; Suls & Marco, 1990). Separate independent components within the Type A behav- ior pattern may contribute differentially to either positive or negative consequences where achievement and health are con- cerned (Booth-Kewley & Friedman, 1987; Helmreich, Spence, & Pred, 1988; Jex, Adams, Elacqua, & Bachrach, 2002; Palmero, Diez, & Asensio, 2001; Rosenman, 1991; Spence, Helmreich, & Pred, 1987; Spielberger et al., 1985). In particular, the predisposing factor for health-related problems seems to consist of excessive competitiveness, impatience, anger, hostil- ity, and aggressiveness (Booth-Kewley & Friedman, 1987; Johnson, 1990; Rosenman, 1991). For example, utilizing the Jenkins’ Activity Survey (Jenkins et al., 1971, 1979), Spence and her colleagues (Spence et al., 1987; Spence, Pred & Helm- reich, 1989; Pred, Helmreich, & Spence, 1987) identified two separate components within the Type A behavior pattern: Achievement Striving, characterized by a hard-driving task ori- entation, taking one’s work seriously, and expending effort to achieve; and Impatience-Irritability, reflecting time urgency, anger, hostility, and aggressiveness. The Impatient-Irritability component is comparable to the JAS-S (Speed-Impatience) factor that is associated with cardiac reactivity and characteris- tic of people prone to cardiovascular disorders (e.g., Palmero et al., 2001). Research indicates Achievement Striving is posi- tively associated with academic and occupational performance, but not related to health problems; in contrast, Impatience- Irritability is positively associated with health problems, but unrelated to performance (Barling & Boswell, 1995; Barling & Charbonneau, 1992; Bluen, Barling, & Burns, 1990; Chidester, 1990; Conte, Mathieu, & Landy, 1998; Day & Jriege, 2002; Spence et al., 1987, 1989). Spence et al. (1987) focused particular attention on the role of interpersonal competitiveness as it is often an inherent com- ponent to many achievement situations, and one of the three dimensions included in their assessment of intrinsic achieve- ment motivation (see Helmreich & Spence, 1978; Spence & Helmreich, 1983). Although their conception of competitive- ness was generally a healthy enjoyment of competition and a desire to win, such competitiveness was positively correlated with both Achievement Striving and Impatience-Irritability and was a correlate of poor health (Spence et al., 1987) and poor performance on achievement tasks (Spence & Helmreich, 1983; Spence et al., 1987). Whereas some degree of competitiveness may be normal and inherent in achievement strivings, excessive competitiveness may be unwarranted and perhaps would prove particularly counterproductive. Spence et al. (1987) observed that competitiveness might sometimes have a “hostile, aggres- sive tinge to it” that may negatively impact on both health and performance (p. 527). Indeed, Rosenman (1991) suggested that it was this inappropriate or excessive competitiveness associ- ated with the Type A behavior pattern that was the “toxic fac- tor” as far as increased risk for coronary heart disease was con- cerned (i.e., the “hard-driving competitiveness” of Booth- Kewley & Friedman, 1987). Karen Horney’s (1937) notion of hypercompetitiveness, a neurotic need to compete indiscriminately and to win at any or
B. THORNTON ET AL. 412 all cost, is conceptually consistent with the inappropriately excessive, hostile, hard-driving competitiveness associated with the toxic component of the Type A behavior pattern (i.e., Birks & Roger, 2000; Booth-Kewley & Friedman, 1987; Rosenman, 1991). A hypercompetitive orientation is characterized by be- havior that is not only hostile and aggressive toward others, but also manipulative and exploitive of them. Further, Horney con- sidered such excessive competitive strivings to be a maladap- tive means of maintaining and enhancing feelings of self-worth. Consistent with her contention that hypercompetitiveness is based in neurosis and would detrimentally impact on personal- ity and behavior, there is considerable research evidence that hypercompetitive individuals are indeed less psychologically healthy than those not so hypercompetitive. For example, hy- percompetitive individuals tend to be low in self-esteem, self-actualization, interpersonal trust, and forgiveness of others and also are high in destructive narcissism, Machiavellianism, authoritarianism, dogmatism, and the need to control and dominate others (Collier, Ryckman, Thornton, & Gold, 2010; Dru, 2003; Ryckman, Hammer, Kaczor, & Gold, 1990; Ryck- man, Libby, Van Den Borne, Gold, & Lindner, 1997; Ryckman, Thornton, & Butler, 1994; Ryckman, Thornton, Gold, & Bur- ckle, 2002; Watson, Morris, & Miller, 1998). Moreover, re- search has indicated that hypercompetitive individuals are in- deed highly neurotic and, in particular, their neurotic tendencies are grounded in anger and hostility toward others (Ross, Rausch, & Canada, 2003). In stark contrast to hypercompetitiveness, personal develop- ment competitiveness reflects an alternative healthy, positive competitive orientation (Ryckman & Hamel, 1992; Ryckman et al., 1996, 1997). Similar to Spence et al.’s general notion of competitiveness as a healthy enjoyment of competition and a desire to win, those characterized by this competitive orienta- tion are indeed highly motivated to win and succeed. However, such individuals have learned to compete with (rather than against) others in order to achieve their personal goals. And, while they may certainly desire to win and be successful, it would not be at any cost or at the expense of others. Moreover, they may focus less on the task outcome (i.e., win or lose) and more on the enjoyment inherent in the task itself (i.e., task mastery and the self-discovery, self-improvement, and personal growth gained through competition). This personal develop- ment competitive orientation is associated with various indica- tors of social and psychological health, correlating positively with self-esteem, achievement, affiliation, forgiveness, concern for the welfare of others, while negatively correlated with neu- roticism, dominance, and aggressiveness (Collier et al., 2010; Ryckman & Hamel, 1992; Ryckman, Hammer, Kaczor, & Gold, 1996; Ryckman, Libby, Van Den Borne, Gold, & Lindner, 1997). The present research sought to explore further the distinction between these two competitive orientations and, in particular, their respective associations with the Achievement Striving and Impatience-Irritability components of the Type A behavior pat- tern. In particular, it was expected that hypercompetitiveness would not be related to Achievement Striving, but positively correlate with Impatience-Irritability. In contrast, personal de- velopment competitiveness would be positively correlated with Achievement Strivings, but not related to Impatience-Irritability. Of additional interest was to see whether the two competitive strivings would differentially relate to actual academic achieve- ment and physical health reports as well. Considering the mal- adaptive nature of hypercompetitiveness, it was expected to be negatively associated with actual academic achievement and positively associated with health-related complaints. Personal development competitiveness was expected to have an opposite pattern of relationships. Method Participants and Procedure Undergraduate students, 140 men (Mage = 23.8) and 166 women (Mage = 24.4), volunteered to participate in this study in exchange for extra credit in their psychology course at a public university in the northeast. Group sessions were held during which the students completed a set of questionnaires ostensibly to obtain baseline data for comparison purposes in subsequent research. Upon completion, students were thanked for their participation and provided an explanation of the re- search purpose and contact information should they desire fur- ther information. Assessment Instruments Hypercompetitive Attitude Scale. Ryckman et al.’s (1990) 26-item scale provided for a reliable and valid assessment of individual differences in hypercompetitive attitudes. Sample items include “Winning in competition makes me feel more powerful as a person” and “I find myself being competitive even in situations that do not call for competition.” Item re- sponses are made on a five-point scale, “never true of me” (1) to “always true of me” (5) with higher total scores reflecting a greater hypercompetitive orientation. The internal consistency of this scale in the present study was .87. Personal Development Competitive Attitude. This is a reli- able and valid 15-item assessment of a psychologically healthy competitive orientation concerned more with personal growth and development than individual attainment (Ryckman et al., 1996). Individual items are responded to on a five-point scale, strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Sample items in- clude: “Competition helps me develop my abilities more” and “I value competition because it helps me to be the best that I can be.” Higher scores are indicative of a greater personal de- velopment competitive attitude. The internal consistency of this scale in the present study was .90. Type A Behavior Pattern. Spence et al.’s (1987) adaptation of the Jenkin’s Activity Scale provided for separate assessments of the two components of the Type A behavior pattern previ- ously discussed. The seven-item Achievement Strivings factor focuses on achievement-related attitudes and behavior. Sample items are “Nowadays, do you consider yourself to be: very hard-driving or very relaxed and easy going?” and “How seri- ously do you take your work?” The five-item Impatience-Ir r i- tability factor is concerned with anger, impatience, and irritabil- ity. Sample items are “Do you tend to do things in a hurry?” and “Typically, how easily do you get irritated?” All items are responded to using a five-point scale with appropriately labeled end-values (e.g., 1 = never, 5 = always). Scoring was such that higher scores reflected greater Achievement Strivings and Im- patience-Irritability; internal consistencies of the two scales in
B. THORNTON ET AL. 413 the present study were .76 and .70, respectively. Academic Achievement. Actual academic achievement was assessed using the cumulative grade-point average (GPA) of the participants a year following the semester in which data for the present study was collected. The number of semesters included in the students’ GPA varied among students; the modal number of semesters completed by participants in the present study was four; median credit hours completed was 35. Health Survey. Included in the questionnaire set was the 22-item “health survey” used by Spence and Helmreich (1987). Among the health events listed were headaches, backaches, feeling down or depressed, fatigue or exhaustion, rashes, tight- ness in the chest, indigestion, constipation, colds and flu, and substance abuse. Participants indicated how often each specific physical health event had occurred during the past year using a five-point scale, “never” (1) to “very frequently” (5). Item re- sponses are summed so that higher total scores indicated greater self-reported health problems. Internal consistency for this as- sessment in the present study was .89. Social Desirability Scale. A short form of the Marlowe- Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Reynolds, 1982) was used to assess an individual’s tendency to seek approval by responding to statements in a socially desirable manner. This was included as a possible control for social desirability response bias. Sam- ple items from the 13-item scale are “I’m always willing to admit when I make a mistake” and “I sometimes feel resentful when I don’t get my way.” Each item is responded to as either “true” or “false” with points accumulated for every item re- sponded to in a socially desirable manner. Thus, higher scores would reflect greater predisposition to respond in a socially desirable manner; internal consistency of these items in the present study was .86. Results and Discussion Social Desirability Response Bias. Initial correlational analy- ses indicated significant relationships between social desirabil- ity and other individual difference assessments. In particular, individuals predisposed to present themselves in a socially de- sirable manner expressed higher Achievement Striving (r = .20), less Impatience-Irritability (r = –.34), less hypercompetitive- ness (r = –.41), and more personal development competitive- ness (r = .17; all ps < .05 or better). Partial correlation analyses were conducted in order to control statistically for the influence of social desirability response bias, however, this did not ap- preciably alter the strength of relationships among the different assessments. As such, it is the zero-order correlation coeffi- cients that are presented in Table 1 and discussed here. Competitive Orientation and Type A Behavior. Achievement Strivings and Impatience-Irritability components of the Type A behavior pattern were not highly correlated with one another (r = .14, p < .05), and were related on a magnitude similar to that previously observed (e.g., Pred et al., 1987; Spence et al., 1987). As expected, hypercompetitiveness was not associated with Achievement Strivings (r = .08, ns), but was positively corre- lated with Impatience-Irritability (r = .36, p < .01), the Type A component implicated in increased risk for coronary heart dis- ease. In contrast to hypercompetitiveness, and consistent with expectations, the personal development competitive orientation was positively associated with Achievement Strivings (r = .24, Table 1. Correlation coefficie nts among assessment sca l es. AS I-I HC PDC HP GPA Achievement Strivings - .14a .08 .24c .05 .30c Impatience-Irritability - .36c .04 .32c .08 Hypercompetitiveness - –.05 .21c .09 Personal Development Competitiveness - –.36c .23c Health Problems - –.08 Note: n = 306; ap < .05; bp < .01; cp < .001. p < .001), but not correlated with Impatience-Irritability (r = .04). Actual Academic Achievement. The Achievement Striving component of Type A behavior was positively related to stu- dents’ grade-point average (r = .30, p < .001), whereas Impa- tience-Irritability was not (r = .08). This pattern is similar to that of previous research (e.g., Spence et al., 1987, 1989). Con- sistent with a desire to succeed along with a concern for per- sonal growth, personal development competitiveness was posi- tively associated with actual academic performance (r = .23, p < .001). Hypercompetitiveness was not significantly related to actual achievement (r = –.08) and suggests that both hyper- competitive and non-hypercompetitive individuals may demon- strate comparable academic performance. As previously noted, the hypercompetitive person is more likely to be engaged in academic pursuits for extrinsic, rather than intrinsic, reasons (e.g., Ryckman et al., 1990). Specifically, while hypercompeti- tive individuals may value working hard to achieve success (Ryckman et al., 1997), they strive for success primarily to win recognition and praise from others (Horney, 1937). When such attention is not forthcoming, their motivation to pursue a goal may diminish rapidly, resulting in deep disappointment and even depression (Ryckman et al., 1990). Thus, their motivation to succeed through consistent pursuit of a goal is variable and may keep them from being as successful as they want or could be in many situations. Health Problems. The Impatience-Irritability component of the Type A behavior pattern correlated positively with self- reported health problems (r = .32, p < .001), but Achievement Strivings did not (r = .05). This is consistent with previous research (e.g., Spence et al., 1987, 1989). Personal development competitiveness was negatively associated with reported health problems (r = –.36, p < .001). In contrast, hypercompetitive- ness was positively associated with health problems (r = .21, p < .001). The negative health implications associated with the Type A behavior pattern are not associated with Achievement Strivings, but instead relate consistently to another component of Type A, whether it be characterized as Impatience-Irritability (Spence & Helmreich, 1987), Speed- Impatience (Furnham, 1990; Palmero et al., 2001), anger, hostility and aggressiveness (Gray, 1990; Johnson, 1990; Swan, Carmelli, & Rosenman, 1991), or hard-driving competitiveness (Booth-Kewley & Friedman, 1987). Any and all of these characterizations are embodied in the hypercompetitive personality construct (Hor- ney, 1937), but are atypical of personal development competi- tiveness (Ryckman et al., 1996). And common to them all may be the fast activation, heightened reactivity, and slow recovery of the autonomic nervous system in response to cognitive and psychomotor activity that is characteristically associated with
B. THORNTON ET AL. 414 the Type A personality’s poor prognosis for hypertension and coronary heart disease (Gray, 1990; Harbin, 1989; Palmero et al., 2001; Pfiffner, 1989). General Conclusion Overall, the present results provide further support for the independent distinction between the Type A behavior compo- nents, Achievement Striving and Impatience-Irritability. These results also provide further support for the concurrent and dis- criminant validity of the hypercompetitiveness and personal development competitiveness constructs. Hypercompetitiveness was not related to Achievement Strivings, but did correlate positively with Impatience-Irritability, the Type A behavior component implicated in increased risk for hypertension and coronary heart disease. In addition, this psychologically un- healthy competitive orientation did not relate to actual aca- demic achievement, but was associated with greater self-re- ported health problems. In contrast, personal development com- petitiveness related positively to Achievement Strivings while having no association with Impatience-Irritability. This healthy competitive orientation was associated with greater actual aca- demic achievement and fewer reported health problems. In addition to continuing to examine the personality and be- havioral correlates of these two competitive orientations, future research should also direct attention to the psychosomatic im- plications for the hypercompetitive personality. In particular, whereas the present study relied on self-reported health prob- lems, subsequent research may utilize other, more objective, assessments of he alth-relate d problems in general (e.g., medical records) and risk-factors for hypertension and coronary heart disease in particular. 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