Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 2016, 4, 7-13
Published Online April 2016 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/gep
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/gep.2016.44002
How to cite this paper: Rainey, K.L., Vaganay, M. and Mac I ntyre, S. (2016) A Review of Literature on Residential Solid Fuel
Burning, and Consequently the Implications of Meeting the European 2050 Low-Carbon Targets. Journal of Geoscience and
Environment Protection, 4, 7-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/gep.2016.44002
A Review of Literature on Residential
Solid Fuel Burning, and Consequently
the Implications of Meeting the
European 2050 Low-Carbon Targets
K. L. Rainey, M. Vaganay, S. MacIntyre
School of the Built Environment, Ulster University, Jordanstown, Northern Ireland
Received 7 December 2015; accepted 6 April 2016; published 11 April 2016
Abstract
This paper is intended to source literature, identifying the adverse impacts on human health, from
the pollutants released from residential burning from both fossil fuel and biomass sources. The
literature sourced was ascertained through the con d uction of a systematic literature review. The
author assessed peer-reviewed English language articles, which had been published within the
last five years. The studies reviewed indicated a clear increase in the burning of residential solid
fuels. The findings suggest that residential solid fuel combustion is occurring in developed coun-
tries, primarily as a secondary source of heating during the winter months. The study concluded
that similarly to bituminous coal, the domestic burning of wood also had adverse effects on human
health. The intentions of UK Climate Change Act 2008 are to achieve an 80% reduction by the year
2050 in the net carbon account from the 1990 baseline. It is recommended for countries to meet
the European 2050 targets, long-term measures need to be adopted. This includes switching from
residential solid fuel burning to heating methods such as oil and gas, which are necessary in im-
proving overall air quality and public health.
Keywords
Residential Solid Fuel, Health Impacts, Developed Cou ntri e s, Air Pollutants, Climate Chan ge
1. Introduction
In 2010 and 2012, the European Environment Agency (EEA) attributed more than 400,000 premature deaths,
throughout Europe to the inhalation of air pollutants [1]. The combustion of residential solid fuels releases air
pollutants such as PM10, PM2.5, benzo[a]pyrene and sulphur dioxide, concurring with the EEA, research studies
[2] [3] suggest that these pollutants have adverse effects on human health. It has been established that the im-
pacts from residential solid fuel combustion are comparable to that of pollution emitted from traffic on a busy
street [4]. However, conclusive evidence from research studies of the impacts on human health from the com-

K. L. Rainey et al.
8
bustion of residential solid fuel is limited. Due to the extensive variety of contributing sources to air pollution,
the definitive source of exposure can be difficult to evidence [5]. The aim of the systematic literature review is
to identify current studies which assess the health impacts from pollutants that are released from residential solid
fuel combustion from open fire places and/or wood burning stoves, namely PM10, PM2.5, benzo[a]pyrene and
sulphur dioxide within developed countries. In addition, this research intends to source whether residential solid
fuel trends can be classified as seasonal specific. Furthermore, this paper critically reviews these studies, estab-
lishing whether the development of low-carbon energy supplies is achievable without having a detrimental ef-
fect on human health. Currently, the majority of developed countries are highly dependent on fossil fuels to pla-
cate the countries’ high energy needs. Governmental climate change policy encouraging renewable, sustainable,
energy sources and the reduction in greenhouse gas emission aims to eliminate this dependency [6]. Targets
have been established by the European Union to increase renewable energy. One key target is 27% of the total
energy consumption to be from renewable sources by the year 2030 [7]. Meeting the targets of the Climate
Change Act 2008, the utilization of biomass energy production is encouraged, as biomass sources are deemed to
be carbon neutral [8]. Air pollution should not be regarded as a local problem. Governmental action must be
taken both nationally and even globally to reduce the impact that pollutants from residential solid fuel burning
are having on public health [9]. Various studies [10]-[12] have found that the occurrence of European residential
solid fuel burning is seasonal specific, occurring mainly on evenings and weekends during the winter months.
2. Methods
The collation of literature for analysis was sourced from; Science Direct, Scopus and from Pro Quest Health and
Medical databases. When conducting the systematic literature review search, the selected articles were limited to
peer-reviewed articles which had been published within the last five years in the English language. Figure 1
summarises the search strategy that was explored during the literature search. The search strategy key words
comprised of exposure to pollutants from residential solid fuel burning, the health outcomes consequential from
those pollutants, the source of the pollutants and the location of these studies. Articles which focused on resi-
dential solid fuel burning for cooking appliances were excluded. Studies within an area of high traffic levels or
industry were also eliminated. The remaining articles which met the literature review criteria, and which could
access the articles full text were reviewed by the author.
3. Results and Discussion
The preliminary search strategy key words retrieved 3606 potential articles for the author to review from the se-
lected databases. Only 313 articles met the criteria of focusing on developed countries. Upon further review of
these articles, 285 articles were excluded due to the absence of impacts on human health directly occurring from
residential solid fuel burning from open fires and/or wood burning stoves. The remaining 28 articles were criti-
cally analysed by the author. Each of the articles focused on various pollutants, which the study examined 8
PM10 studies, 7 PM2.5 studies, 10 benzo[a]pyrene studies and 3 sulphur dioxide studies. The systematic review
of literature found that studies sampling particulate matter and benzo[a]pyrene have been more prevalent in re-
cent years in comparison to sulphur dioxide. Benzo[a]pyrene has recently been found to be carcinogenic, ac-
cordingly current research studies [13]-[16] have focused on this pollutant with the intention to increase the
body of knowledge. Similarly PM2.5 has only recently been focused upon with the European Council Directive
Figure 1. Search strategy used to identify, included studies for systematic literature review.

K. L. Rainey et al.
9
(2008/50/EC) introducing new provisions, due to improved scientific understanding to the adverse health effects,
PM2.5 has on human health [10]. In comparison to PM10, which when inhaled can enter into the upper human
respiratory tract, PM2.5 particles are smaller, thus allowing them to infiltrate deeper into the lungs.
3.1. Health Impacts
Of the 28 articles reviewed by the author, only eight of those were directly associating the study to the adverse
effects on human health, as a result of the contribution from residential solid fuel burning. The reviewed litera-
ture suggests that exposure to pollutants released from small-scale biomass and fossil fuel combustion devices,
have been considered worldwide, to be negatively impacting upon human health [9]. Recently there has been
increasing evidence, including human exposure studies [4] [17]. The studies have supported theories that expo-
sure from residential solid fuel combustion has adverse effects on the health of the human population [18] [19].
Wood is a renewable source of residential heating. Although there are benefits to be gained from using wood as
a means to heat the home, unregulated wood stoves can cause detrimental effects on human health [20]. The
impact on human health from the shift from light fuel oil to solid fuel combustion, primarily wood, will be
gradual. The chronic impacts on human health shall not automatically become apparent. However, over years of
exposure, the inhalant will accumulate the pollutants, impacting on morbidity and mortality later on in life [20].
However, acute respiratory exposure can be associated with domestic solid fuel burning. The inhalation of pol-
lutants from residential solid fuel combustion can cause both acute and chronic symptoms, affecting the inhalant
in both the short and long term of their health condition [21].
3.1.1. Impacts on the Respiratory System and Risk of Developing Cancer
Research evaluating the ban on the sale of coal correlated black smoke concentrations with respiratory and car-
diovascular deaths, as the average black smoke declined, the standardized respiratory and cardiovascular death
rates coincided [17]. The assessment of pulmonary inflammation and tissue damage in the mouse lung from ex-
posure to samples of particulate matter from either an old or modern domestic heating appliance indicated that
mice exposed to the different heating appliances displayed differing effects. The modern heating appliances
produced less particulate matter, conversely, the modern heating appliances induced the highest inflammatory,
cytotoxic and genotoxic activities in the mice lungs [4]. These studies [4] [17], evidenced the relationship be-
tween, pollutants resultant from residential solid fuel burning and adverse effects on the human respiratory sys-
tem. Benzo[a]pyrene is the only polycyclic hydrocarbon that has been categorized as a carcinogen by the Inter-
natio na l Agency for Research on Cancer [22]. Resultant from increasing expenses of energy, an increasing trend
of residential solid fuel combustion is occurring during the winter months. A study [14] conducted evidenced,
within both cities sampled the concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene during winter months regularly exceeded the
European limits. However, indicating within the larger urban area, the residents were at higher risk of develop-
ing cancer due to the combustion of residential solid fuel burning [14]. Air pollution episodes occurring during
the winter months have been established to be attributable to an increased risk on human health, in the develop-
ment of cancer during the lifetime [16]. Improved knowledge on sources of benzo[a]pyrene to improve air qual-
ity policies, can reduce emissions that are impacting upon health.
3.1.2. Health Impacts on Children and Prenatal Exposure
Research [15] estimated through the use of human respiratory tract disposition modelling, that there is a greater
risk of infants and children developing lung cancer in comparison to adults. This increase may possibly be the
developing physiology of a child. Children are more susceptible to the effects from air pollutants. A child’s lung
has not fully developed, and their bodyweight is much lesser than that of an adult. In addition children’s height
results in the child being closer to the ground level, consequently, inhaling the heavier pollutants [23]. The re-
search [15], conducted assessed the risk of cancer which is attributable to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ex-
posure, consequent to the recent increase of residential solid fuel combustion. Exposure to polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons such as benzo[a]pyrene, that have been released from residential solid fuel burning during the
prenatal and early postnatal stages are of particular concern [24]. Research of when effects from pollutants start
and if they continue to persist throughout childhood years [25], concluded that a foetus’ exposure, resulted in
significant association with height growth during childhood. The foetal brain and central nervous system are
developing, thus sensitive to pollutants. Prenatal exposure to benzo[a]pyrene increases risk of developing anxi-

K. L. Rainey et al.
10
ety, depression and attenuation problems later on in the child’s life [24].
3.2. Governmental Policy
Globally levels of air pollution have led to Governments introducing legislation and policies to reduce harmful
pollutants within their country. The European Union has set targets for a low-carbon economy by 2050, aiming
for the Member States to be more climate-friendly and less energy consuming. Governmental efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions have resulted in many countries utilizing wood and biomass sources as a form of do-
mestic heat. In addition to wood being renewable, it is deliberated to be an energy source that is carbon neutral.
In countries where wood is in abundance, producing the energy requirements for their citizens is an established
industry [26]. In concurrent research [27] indicated that, as a result of climate change and due to the security of
future energy supplies, namely fossil fuels, there has been a resurge in the use of wood for residential heating.
Governments have seen biomass to be an important resource in achieving a low-carbon economy. Throughout
Europe, alternatives to fossil fuels have gained political and economic attention. The production of wood used
for domestic residential heating has been increasing, due to fossil fuels contributing to, detrimental effect on the
environment and human health [20]. Research on residential wood combustion [8], found that wood sources for
residential heating are locally available in rural areas throughout mid-Europe. Wood is competitively priced in
comparison to oil and gas. With divergence to those studies promoting the benefits of the utilization of wood as
a clean energy source, the annual European air quality report details that, the exposure to benzo[a]pyrene has in-
creased 21% from 2003 to 2012. This increase has been associated with emissions released from the residential
combustion of solid fuels, including wood [1]. Air pollution levels are a priority for international, national and
local governments. Principally within the new European Member States, such as Poland, solid fuel combustion
for domestic heating is widely used [15], resulting in countries producing high levels of pollutants and incurring
breaching fines. This problem is not solely associated with Europe. A study conducted in New Zealand, evi-
denced high levels of particulate matter that was primarily attributable to residential solid fuel combustion.
Within one of the cities, stringent intervention measures were implemented to manage the air quality issue. A
residential heater replacement programme was instigated and a ban on new build dwellings installing solid fuel
burners was introduced [28]. A similar approached intervention and financial incentive could be implemented
within European countries.
3.3. Seasonality of Residential Solid Fuel Burning
From the 28 articles the author reviewed, 14 were related to the seasonal variation of pollutants resultant from
residential solid fuel burning. A study within two urban sites [29], sampled the concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene,
concluding that the winter average was higher than the annual European limit value. A similar study [30] was
conducted at a rural background site, which sampled PM2.5 levels. Corresponding with the urban sites, during
the winter period there was an increase in air pollutants resultant from residential solid fuel burning. Sampled
pollutants were deemed to be three times higher than the summer period [30]. Governments believe that residen-
tial wood combustion as a source of domestic heating, signifies a renewable energy source of the future. How-
ever, wood combustion has been associated with increased concentrations of air pollutants in both urban and ru-
ral areas [29]. With the increasing costs associated with fossil fuels and other energy sources, there is a concep-
tion of a wood burning stove being an inexpensive and locally available energy source, residential areas may
find an increase in installations [14]. Within Germany, there has been an increase in pollutants, resultant from
residential solid fuel combustion. However, this is due to the increasing number of wood stoves being installed
for domestic heating, as the number of open fire places has been decreasing [31]. The reviewed articles suggest
that the majority of residential solid fuel combustion is occurring during the evenings and weekends throughout
the winter months. In addition, it became apparent from the review of literature that the majority of dwellings,
which had been seasonally burning solid fuel, were doing so as an additional secondary source of heating.
4. Conclusion
The reviewed studies illustrated the use of wood stoves as a form of domestic heating has become increasingly
popular. In comparison, the use of open fire places as a form of heating has decreased. The sourced literature,
evidences the increase of wood and biomass as domestic heating fuels, is resultant from governmental incentives.

K. L. Rainey et al.
11
These incentives are to create a low-carbon, sustainable society. The literature sourced that the financial saving
was a motivator in residents switching from oil and gas as a source of domestic heating, to wood burning stoves.
Wood is renewable and is therefore deemed to be in abundance and inexpensive in comparison to fossil fuels
such as coal, oil and gas. The systematic literature review also supported that the burning of residential solid fuel
was seasonal specific, occurring mainly during evenings and weekends throughout the winter months. Fuel pov-
erty may be apparent, as homeowners may be spending more than 10% of the household income heating their
homes. Older heating systems tend to be less energy efficient [32]. Winter months are the coldest periods of the
year, in accordance heating costs will be higher during these months. Subsequently, the use of residential solid
fuel burning could be a domestic heating method correlated with tha t suffering fuel poverty, as an inexpensive
way to heat the home. The review of literature indicated that there wa s an increase of air pollutants in both urban
and rural sites, within developed countries. These are resultant from the domestic burning of solid fuels to heat
the home. The literature sourced from the systematic review, supported that there wa s a gap within the body of
knowledge. The gap was evidenced by the lack of scientific proof on the effects on the health of humans im-
pacting from the different pollutants and their concentration levels. Of the 28 articles sourced, only eight articles
made a direct association between residential solid fuel burning and thus the contributing adverse effects on
human health. Due to the extensive variety both internal and external, contributing sources to air pollution
within a dwelling, a definitive source of exposure is hard to evidence.
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