International Journal of Geosciences, 2011, 2, 120-137
doi:10.4236/ijg.2011.22013 Published Online May 2011 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ijg)
Provenance Variability during Damuda Sedimentation in
the Talchir Gondwana Basin, India – A Statistical
Assessment
Rabindra Nath Hota1, Bijay Kumar Das1, Madhusmita Sahoo1, Wataru Maejima2
1Post Gradu ate Depart ment of Ge ology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, India
2Department of Geosciences, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
Received January 12, 2011; revised March 4, 2011; accepted April 16, 2011
Abstract
The Talchir Gondwana basin houses the Talchir Formation at the base, succeeded by the Damuda Group and
the Kamthi Formation in upward progression. The present study is an attempt to determine the provenance of
the Damuda Group and its variability in terms of location, climate and tectonism through time from the
composition of sandstone grains and detritus of the constituent Karharbari, Barakar and Barren Measures
formations. The Damuda sandstones are composed of variable amounts of monocrystalline undulatory, non-
undulatory and polycrystalline quartz grains, potash and plagioclase feldspars as well as metamorphic and
sedimentary rock fragments in addition to heavy accessories. Palaeocurrent studies suggest that the Eastern
Ghats Supergroup lying to the south of the basin served as the source area of the Damuda sediments. Plots of
sandstone composition in tectonic setting discrimination diagrams suggest derivation of the detritus from
craton interior, continental block and recycled orogen provinces. Statistical analyses indicate significant dif-
ferences in the detrital modes of the sandstones of the Karharb ari, Barakar and Barren Measures formations,
which may be attributed to temporal and spatial variation of the provenance coupled with climate change in
commensurate with Damuda sedimentation.
Keywords: Provenance, Damuda Group, Talchir Gondwana Basin, Statistics
1. Introduction
Determination of different aspects of provenance viz. its
location with respect to the depositional basin, lithology,
climate and tectonic setting are some of the important
parameters of basin analysis. Among the detrital silicic-
lastic rocks, the sandstones provide maximum informa-
tion about the provenance. Location of the source area
can be estimated from the scalar and vector attributes of
the sediments while the heavy mineral suites provide
insight to the source rock lithology. On the other hand,
the light detrital grains like quartz, feldspar and rock
fragment, which constitu te bulk of the sandston e volume
not only provide useful information about the lithology
of the provenance but also its tectonic setting. The pio-
neering works of different researchers [1-4] revolutiona-
rised the interpretation of tectonic setting of the prove-
nance with the help of various discrimination diagrams
with quartz, feldspar and rock fragments as the end
members. Though the character of detrital grains are
substantially affected by the prevalent climatic condition
during weathering, sedimentary differentiation by long
distance transportation and burial diagenesis [5-6]; nev-
ertheless the framework lithology of the sandstones have
been extensively used to decipher the tectonic settings of
the provenances of different ages and countries deposited
in diverse depositional environments [7-15].
The Gondwana basins of the Indian peninsula are in-
tracratonic rift basins within Indian plate which devel-
oped along palaeo-zones of weakness in the Precambrian
basement [16-17]. The present-day isolated Gondwana
basins along Koel-Damodar, Son-Mahanadi and Prahni-
ta-Godavari river valleys (Figure 1(a)) are linearly ar-
ranged as strings corresponding to the Damodar, Maha-
nadi and Godavari river valleys respectively. The early
history of development of these rift basins may be traced
back to Late Archean when Singhbhum, Bastar and
Dharawar cratons converged and Eastern Ghats mobile

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 121
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Distribution of the Gondwana basins in the eastern part of the Indian peninsula and location of the Talchir ba-
sin; (b) Geological sketch map of the Talchir Gondwana basin showing the study area (modified after Raja Rao, 1982).
belt evolved in the Gondwanaland. The junction of these
cratonic blocks acted as zones of weakness leading to the
formation of intracratonic rift basins in response to crus-
tal tension during Late Palaeozoic [18]. The Talchir
Gondwana basin of Orissa is the remnant of a master
Gondwana basin, which was existing within the Eastern
Ghats mobile belt between Singhbhum craton to the
north and Bastar craton to the southwest [19].
The Damuda Group of the Talchir Gondwana basin is
divisible into Karharbari, Barakar and Barren Measures
formations out of which former two are coal bearing.
Due to its huge coal resource as well as unique sedimen-
tary status, some works have been done on cyclicity of
lithofacies, palaeontology and river metamorphosis of
the Damuda Group [20-22]. It has been observed that
basin tectonism has played a key role in controlling the
changes in sediment dispersal pattern during Damuda
sedimentation [22-23]. Hence, it is expected that the
provenance might have undergone changes in spatial and
temporal dimensions. The aim of the present study is to
decipher the changes of the provenance in terms of loca-
tion, climate and tectonism with advancement of Damu-
da sedimentation from detrital grains of sandstones using
empirical ternary plots and simple statistical techniques.
2. Geological Setting
The area under study is located in the southeastern part
of the Talchir basin (Figure 1(b)). The Gondwana sedi-
ments in the study area represent a fairly contiguous
succession of strata comprising a part of Damuda Group
underlain by the Talchir Formation (Figure 2). Gross
lithology of Talchir Formation is diamictites, sandstones,
needle shales, interbedded sandstone and shale, siltstone
and shale and marlstone and shale, which were deposited
in predominantly lacustrine environment. This set of
lithologies is followed upward by cross bedded fine to
medium grained sandstone of glacio-fluvial origin [24].
The Damuda Group is unconformably overlain by the
Kamthi Formation (Figure 1(b)), which is composed of
conglomerate, fine to medium grained sandstones, grey
and red shales [25]. The stratigraphic division of the
Gondwana rocks of th e Talchir basin is presented in Ta-
ble 1.
The Damuda Group is disposed in a homoclinal fa-
shion striking east-west and dipping towards north at low
angles ranging from 2 to 10 degrees. It is divisible into
Karharbari, Barakar and Barren Measure Formations
from bottom to top (Figure 2). The lower two formations
are the coal-bearing horizons of the basin. The coal-
bearing Karharbari and Barakar formations are com-
posed of cyclothemic successions of sandstone, shale and
coal. Sandstone (>90%) is the chief constituents of the
Karharbari Formation while coal ( 51%) is the principal
litholounit of the Barakar Formation [22]. A remarkable
Boulder Gravel Unit of 40 – 60 m thickness separates the
coal-bearing Karharbari and Barakar formations. It is
composed of clast-supported boulder gravel and ma-
trix-supported boulder conglomerate. Its stratigraphic
position is dubious. Raja Rao [26] considers it to be the
basal part of the overlying Barakar Formation, while
others [24] have regarded it as a part of the underlying
Karharbari Formation. Due to its monotonous lithology
and debatable stratigraphic affinity it has been excluded
in the present study. The overlying Barren Measures
Formation is constituted of conglomerates, fine- to
coarse-grained sandstones, iron stone shales and coal
stringers. The sandstones and shales are ferruginous in
nature and workable coal seams are absent. The litholo-
gies constituting the Damuda Group are vertically ar-
ranged in a distinctive pattern giving rise to a number of

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 122
Figure 2. Geological map of the study area showing stream sections and boreholes from which sandstone samples were col-
lected. The mean palaeocurrent directions are as per Hota (2007) Figure 7.
fining upward cycles [20].
3. Methods
Due to thick alluvial cover over greater part of the study
area, sandstone samples of the Karharbari and Barren
Measures Formations were collected from exposures
available in the stream sections (Figure 2) while those of
the Barakar Formation were collected from three bore-
holes during exploration stage. Petrographic studies have
been carried out from thin sections. Following Basu et al.
[27] the quartz grains were identified as monocrystalline
(undulatory and nonundulatory) and polycrystalline (2 -
3 crystal units and more than 3 crystal units per grain).
Feldspars were grouped under potash and plagioclase
feldspars. The metamorphic and sedimentary rock frag-
ments were readily identified because of their greater
abundance in comparison to the igneous rock fragments,
which were minimal and negligible. Though garnet, mi-
cas and opaque minerals were encountered in modal
analysis, their frequencies were not taken into considera-
tion in the present study. All the framework grains e.g.
quartz, feldspar and rock fragments, regardless of the
degree of alteration and replace ment were counted as the
original grain types. A total number of 105 sandstone
samples, 25 from the Karharbari Formation, 45 from the
Barakar Formation and 35 from the Barren Measures
Formation were studied in the present work. The modal
analysis data of the Damuda sandstones are presented in
Table 2. The recalculated values (Tables 3 and 4) were
plotted in sandstone classification diagram of Dott [28],
diamond plot of Basu et al. [27], bivariate plot of Suttner

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 123
Table 1. Stratigraphic di visions of the Gondw ana rocks of the Talchir basin (modified after Goswami et al. 2006).
Age Formation/Member Lithology
Recent Alluvium and laterite
Upper
Permian to Upper
Triassic Kamthi Medium to coarse grained, pebbly cross-bedded ferruginous sandstones,
clasts of greenish-white and grayish-white shales, pink clays.
Disconformity
Middle Permian
Damuda Group
Barren Measures Coarse to medium grained greenish grey feldspathic sandstones with shreds and lenses of chocolate coloured clay, micaceous siltstone, dark
gray shale, carbonaceous shale, purple brown shale and clay ironstone.
Late Lower Permian Barakar Fine to coarse grained feldspathic whitish sandstones, gray shale, carbo-
naceous shale, fireclay and ten coal seams.
Late Lower Permian Boulder Gravel Unit Clast-supported boulder gravel and matrix-supported boulder conglome-
rate.
Middle Lower
Permian Karharbari Medium to Coarse grained whitish arkosic sandstones, carbonaceous shale, gray shale and one coal seam.
Disconformity
Early
Lower
Permian Talchir Diamictites, rhythmites, turbidites, conglomerate, fine to me-
dium-grained greenish sandstones, olive coloured needle shales, turbi-
dite, tiliets and tilloids etc.
Nonconformity
Precambrian Eastern Ghats Supergroup Khondalite, charnockite, mica schist, leptynite, quartzite, acid-gneiss and pyroxene granulite intruded by granitic plutons, pegmatite veins and
basic igneous rocks.
and Dutta [6] and ternary diagrams of Dickinson and
others [1-4] for classification of sandstones and prove-
nance interpretation. Equality of quartz, feldspars and
rock fragments of all the three formations of the Damuda
Group were statistically tested to ascertain significant
change in provenance lithology, if any. Further, linear
discriminant functions involving framework lithologies
stated above were determined between pairs of forma-
tions of the Damuda Group to discriminate one forma-
tion from the other. The statistical analyses were carried
out by the procedures outlined by Davis [29]. The clo-
sure effect of petrographic data did not arise as the
amount of heavy accessories, matrix and cement ware
not taken into account in statistical analyses i.e. the sum
of mono- and poly-crystalline quartz, potash and pla-
gioclase feldspars and metamorphic and sedimentary
rock fragments in all cases are different and less than
100%.
4. Sandstone Composition
The sandstones of all the three formations of the Damuda
Group are fine to coarse-grained, poor to moderately
sorted with high amount of argillaceous matrix that has
made them soft and friable. The matrix and cement con-
tent of all the sandstones are more than 15% (Table 2).
Thus, they are all wackes and plot in the arkosic- and
lithic-wacke fields of Dott [28]. However, some sand-
stones of the Karharbari Formation are quartz wackes
(Figure 3). Though the petrographic constituents of all
the 105 sandstones show variation to certain extent, the
average Damuda sandstone is composed of 37.30% mo-
nocrystalline nonundulatory quartz, 10.19% monocrys-
talline undulato ry quartz, 7.96 % polycrystalline quartz o f
2-3 crystal units per grain, 5.01% polycrystalline quartz
of more than 3 crystal units per grain, 4.76% potash
feldspar, 0.66% plagioclase feldspar, 1.65% metamor-
phic rock fragments, 3.26% sedimentary rock fragments,
2.37% heavy accessory minerals and 26.85% matrix and
cement (Table 2). High standard deviations in most cas-
es suggest appreciable variation of sandstone composi-
tion. In spite of wide dissimilarity, so me remarkable var-
iations have been noticed in the average composition of
the sandstones in upward progression. The monocrystal-
line nonundulatory quartz, polycrystalline quartz of 2-3
crystal units per grain, potash feldspar, metamorphic
rock fragments and total framework grains show de-
creasing and increasing trends from Karharbari to Bara-
kar and Barakar to Barren Measures formations respec-
tively (Figure 4). Polycrystalline quartz of more than 3
crystal units per grain, plagioclase feldspars, sedimentary
rock fragments and matrix and cement show increasing
and decreasing trend in upward succession. In contrast,

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 124
Table 2. Modal analysis data (in percent) of the Damuda sandstones.
Sample No. Qmnu Qmu Qp2-3 Qp>3 K P Rm Rs A Clastic M + C
(a) Karharbari Formation
K-1 38.55 17.42 12.10 2.90 2.10 0.81 2.90 1.45 0.81 79.03 20.97
K-2 37.66 17.57 10.46 5.23 2.09 0.63 4.60 1.67 0.21 80.13 19.87
K-3 39.31 17.55 9.69 5.48 2.19 0.73 3.66 1.46 0.73 80.80 19.20
K-4 44.38 15.29 4.24 2.21 2.39 0.92 2.76 1.47 0.74 74.40 25.60
K-5 36.36 17.80 6.19 3.16 2.78 0.00 2.65 1.14 0.51 70.58 29.42
K-6 46.17 21.11 6.07 1.19 2.51 0.53 3.17 1.72 0.13 82.59 17.41
K-7 42.20 19.38 7.06 2.79 2.63 0.00 0.33 4.11 0.33 78.82 21.18
K-8 41.10 15.46 9.98 0.00 5.48 0.39 0.39 1.57 0.00 74.36 25.64
K-9 44.34 14.05 11.68 0.18 4.38 0.00 1.46 0.18 0.18 76.46 23.54
K-10 47.77 20.21 3.25 3.77 4.79 0.00 1.03 1.54 0.00 82.36 17.64
K-11 52.56 16.44 0.81 3.50 4.45 0.27 2.16 0.67 0.00 80.86 19.14
K-12 43.61 19.04 2.89 0.00 4.10 0.00 0.00 1.45 0.24 71.33 28.67
K-13 47.42 21.40 2.03 3.69 4.80 0.00 2.03 0.92 0.00 82.29 17.71
K-14 42.35 28.82 1.08 2.03 6.22 0.00 1.22 1.35 0.00 83.09 16.91
K-15 38.70 29.79 2.97 1.14 5.02 0.00 2.85 1.03 0.00 81.51 18.49
K-16 41.22 27.15 1.20 4.58 6.22 0.00 0.55 0.44 0.00 81.35 18.65
K-17 49.23 8.33 7.72 4.32 6.79 0.15 0.93 0.46 0.00 77.93 22.07
K-18 44.51 29.76 1.67 0.00 2.92 0.28 0.28 2.50 0.00 81.92 18.08
K-19 52.90 11.30 3.45 0.63 2.83 0.31 0.94 1.41 0.00 73.78 26.22
K-20 45.01 22.87 3.63 0.18 4.36 0.18 0.73 0.91 0.00 77.86 22.14
K-21 43.91 18.91 7.97 3.59 2.34 0.78 3.44 0.31 0.16 81.41 18.59
K-22 63.41 3.66 1.42 0.00 2.64 1.02 0.61 1.02 0.61 74.39 25.61
K-23 41.00 18.31 7.46 3.08 2.43 0.49 2.76 1.78 0.65 77.96 22.04
K-24 45.81 19.66 4.10 2.05 4.96 0.17 1.20 1.03 0.34 79.32 20.68
K-25 46.08 20.35 3.63 2.03 4.36 0.29 1.31 1.02 0.29 78.92 21.08
Mean 44.62 18.87 5.31 2.31 3.83 0.32 1.76 1.30 0.24 78.54 21.46
SD 5.76 6.12 3.52 1.74 1.46 0.33 1.26 0.79 0.28 3.60 3.60
(b) Barakar Formation
B-1 28.57 10.76 6.17 6.17 2.65 1.06 0.00 4.23 0.35 59.96 40.04
B-2 30.50 6.50 4.17 5.17 0.83 1.00 0.00 5.00 0.83 54.00 46.00
B-3 31.96 12.22 9.23 5.26 1.99 1.28 0.99 3.13 1.85 67.90 32.10
B-4 31.30 5.87 3.48 15.00 1.30 1.30 1.85 6.30 0.11 66.52 33.48
B-5 23.70 4.13 5.33 13.59 3.48 0.54 0.00 4.35 9.57 64.67 35.33
B-6 29.34 8.62 1.68 6.59 4.67 0.24 0.24 6.35 9.10 66.83 33.17
B-7 36.13 8.80 5.20 5.07 3.73 0.67 0.13 6.27 3.87 69.87 30.13
B-8 33.38 6.28 1.47 6.81 2.00 1.47 0.00 6.94 0.53 58.88 41.12
B-9 31.79 6.67 6.67 10.83 4.40 0.24 0.00 5.24 0.83 66.67 33.33
B-10 32.01 8.17 4.20 7.72 2.84 0.23 0.00 5.56 1.70 62.43 37.57

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 125
B-11 30.80 11.26 4.94 10.11 4.02 0.00 0.00 4.83 0.00 65.98 34.02
B-12 35.70 5.00 0.90 10.40 2.70 0.50 0.00 7.90 1.60 64.70 35.30
B-13 29.90 10.20 5.50 6.20 3.50 0.50 0.00 6.20 2.10 64.10 35.90
B-14 34.39 6.63 1.33 9.69 2.24 0.31 0.00 3.57 5.51 63.67 36.33
B-15 31.80 8.40 4.40 7.90 2.90 0.40 0.00 4.80 3.70 64.30 35.70
B-16 26.90 11.00 4.30 5.30 3.70 0.50 0.00 6.90 2.60 61.20 38.80
B-17 24.07 14.77 10.94 2.19 3.94 0.66 0.00 7.22 1.64 65.43 34.57
B-18 34.10 4.90 4.70 8.90 5.30 0.60 0.80 2.50 1.20 63.00 37.00
B-19 33.70 5.77 12.52 2.49 2.19 1.19 0.00 9.34 1.29 68.49 31.51
B-20 25.47 7.56 5.67 12.24 3.56 0.78 0.00 7.56 4.67 67.52 32.48
B-21 17.00 13.30 10.30 16.60 8.00 0.80 0.00 3.00 2.00 71.00 29.00
B-22 27.80 4.70 2.90 17.90 6.00 0.30 0.00 5.30 2.30 67.20 32.80
B-23 26.25 12.00 4.88 9.13 3.88 1.75 0.00 6.88 4.00 68.75 31.25
B-24 32.50 11.63 5.88 8.00 4.00 0.75 1.38 8.13 0.25 72.50 27.50
B-25 33.50 11.00 0.88 8.63 4.25 3.38 0.00 1.75 4.88 68.25 31.75
B-26 31.00 4.75 3.88 15.13 1.38 1.00 1.50 5.88 1.75 66.25 33.75
B-27 31.49 18.24 2.16 13.51 3.92 2.57 0.00 3.78 0.54 76.22 23.78
B-28 35.47 11.86 3.68 17.44 2.85 2.02 0.36 2.73 0.00 76.39 23.61
B-29 39.33 12.67 3.20 4.67 2.93 1.33 0.00 7.07 0.53 71.73 28.27
B-30 35.80 9.55 8.15 1.53 2.42 1.27 0.00 3.18 1.78 63.69 36.31
B-31 33.80 10.00 3.80 8.20 1.70 1.30 0.00 6.40 0.80 66.00 34.00
B-32 32.97 9.05 2.70 15.27 1.62 2.30 0.00 10.00 2.30 76.22 23.78
B-33 30.41 16.02 6.43 9.49 1.63 2.24 0.00 10.82 0.20 77.24 22.76
B-34 31.00 18.38 3.75 6.50 6.88 1.88 0.00 2.25 6.50 77.13 22.88
B-35 32.70 12.90 4.20 10.30 1.80 0.90 2.00 3.20 0.80 68.80 31.20
B-36 33.33 14.69 2.61 8.70 2.32 1.55 1.45 3.57 0.19 68.41 31.59
B-37 39.31 9.10 2.62 8.00 2.07 2.07 0.00 3.72 0.83 67.72 32.28
B-38 26.14 12.14 6.57 13.14 1.57 1.57 0.00 6.00 2.00 69.14 30.86
B-39 30.82 8.08 3.70 3.70 0.68 3.56 0.00 5.89 1.23 57.67 42.33
B-40 30.40 12.60 5.00 7.80 0.50 0.90 0.00 5.70 0.50 63.40 36.60
B-41 32.60 8.80 5.40 6.20 0.70 1.50 0.20 9.50 0.40 65.30 34.70
B-42 26.85 12.03 4.04 9.82 2.21 1.15 0.00 6.35 6.64 69.10 30.90
B-43 28.67 12.78 5.44 6.78 1.11 1.33 0.00 7.00 0.56 63.67 36.33
B-44 30.03 14.87 1.81 8.87 1.43 1.14 0.00 6.96 0.10 65.20 34.80
B-45 31.20 6.96 7.24 1.67 2.23 1.81 0.00 8.91 0.97 61.00 39.00
Mean 31.02 10.04 4.76 8.77 2.89 1.20 0.24 5.74 2.11 66.76 33.24
SD 4.08 3.59 2.56 4.14 1.62 0.79 0.54 2.17 2.33 5.06 5.06
(c) Barren Measures Formation
BM-1 22.38 4.29 13.33 2.38 19.52 0.48 6.67 3.81 1.43 74.29 25.71
BM-2 57.03 3.80 2.28 0.38 6.08 2.28 2.66 1.90 1.90 78.33 21.67
BM-3 18.91 5.96 23.06 3.11 9.33 0.00 8.81 4.40 2.07 75.65 24.35

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 126
BM-4 27.19 4.69 29.38 4.38 1.88 0.00 3.13 1.88 1.88 74.38 25.63
BM-5 20.13 3.57 34.74 3.57 2.92 0.97 2.27 1.95 3.90 74.03 25.97
BM-6 34.62 2.88 14.66 1.44 5.29 0.00 3.13 0.96 5.77 68.75 31.25
BM-7 36.89 6.61 7.89 1.07 9.81 0.43 2.56 1.07 8.53 74.84 25.16
BM-8 32.95 5.81 5.81 1.16 11.24 0.00 6.98 0.39 12.40 76.74 23.26
BM-9 36.69 1.68 20.62 2.16 8.39 0.00 4.08 1.20 3.60 78.42 21.58
BM-10 41.58 1.08 9.68 1.79 2.51 0.00 3.23 0.00 12.54 72.40 27.60
BM-11 37.92 2.88 17.96 2.66 5.10 0.00 2.88 0.44 7.98 77.83 22.17
BM-12 26.34 2.57 25.74 2.97 7.13 0.00 3.56 1.98 9.50 79.80 20.20
BM-13 37.91 5.74 13.22 2.00 2.24 0.00 2.99 1.25 9.98 75.31 24.69
BM-14 34.62 4.06 19.44 2.78 1.92 0.00 2.78 0.85 7.69 74.15 25.85
BM-15 41.44 1.10 14.55 2.76 7.00 0.00 1.66 1.29 8.66 78.45 21.55
BM-16 47.63 2.49 3.24 0.50 5.24 0.00 2.74 0.50 12.72 75.06 24.94
BM-17 46.51 4.57 14.25 2.69 6.72 0.27 1.88 0.00 4.84 81.72 18.28
BM-18 35.34 5.30 24.38 3.53 8.13 0.00 2.12 0.00 2.83 81.63 18.37
BM-19 31.19 5.20 16.82 3.06 12.84 0.31 1.53 0.31 3.98 75.23 24.77
BM-20 40.88 5.66 8.18 1.26 11.32 0.00 6.29 1.26 4.40 79.25 20.75
BM-21 31.31 3.51 21.73 4.15 11.50 0.00 3.19 1.92 1.92 79.23 20.77
BM-22 34.04 4.96 19.15 2.13 14.54 0.35 2.48 1.42 0.71 79.79 20.21
BM-23 50.56 6.18 5.62 1.12 6.74 0.00 7.87 2.81 1.12 82.02 17.98
BM-24 44.67 5.21 14.89 1.74 9.18 0.25 2.23 1.49 0.99 80.65 19.35
BM-25 44.48 2.91 16.57 3.20 7.56 0.00 2.33 1.45 0.29 78.78 21.22
BM-26 48.93 3.33 8.55 1.43 12.83 0.95 2.85 1.66 1.19 81.71 18.29
BM-27 40.86 1.17 12.84 2.33 8.56 0.00 5.06 1.95 1.56 74.32 25.68
BM-28 47.85 5.28 12.21 1.98 5.28 0.00 2.31 1.98 0.66 77.56 22.44
BM-29 49.88 2.38 13.78 2.38 9.50 0.24 1.66 1.19 0.00 81.00 19.00
BM-30 47.94 1.52 14.53 3.04 5.21 0.00 1.74 1.08 3.04 78.09 21.91
BM-31 57.06 5.59 5.59 1.18 2.35 0.00 2.06 1.76 1.76 77.35 22.65
BM-32 54.97 4.68 3.51 0.58 2.92 0.00 6.43 3.51 1.75 78.36 21.64
BM-33 57.24 8.82 1.50 0.00 10.32 0.33 2.16 1.16 0.50 82.03 17.97
BM-34 47.96 7.19 3.60 0.48 15.59 0.48 2.16 0.48 0.24 78.18 21.82
BM-35 39.13 4.08 15.49 1.90 7.61 0.54 2.17 1.90 5.43 78.26 21.74
Mean 40.14 4.19 13.97 2.09 7.84 0.23 3.39 1.46 4.22 77.53 22.47
SD 10.11 1.82 7.84 1.08 4.13 0.44 1.89 1.00 3.81 3.03 3.03
Damuda Group
Mean 37.30 10.19 7.96 5.01 4.76 0.66 1.65 3.26 2.37 73.15 26.85
SD 9.04 6.74 6.68 4.37 3.50 0.76 1.89 2.67 3.08 6.93 6.93
Index: Qmnu – Monocrystalline nonundulatory quartz, Qmu – Monocrystalline undulatory quartz, Qp2-3 – Polycrystalline quartz, 2-3 crystal units per grain,
Qp>3 – Polycrystalline quartz, more than 3 crystal units per grain, K – Potash feldspar (orthoclase and microcline), P – Plagioclase fel d s par, Rm – Metamorphic
rock frag ment, Rs – Sedimentary rock fragment, A – Accessory minerals (garnet, mica and opaque minerals), Clastic – Total framework grains, M + C – Matrix
+ Cement, SD – Standard deviati on.

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 127
Table 3. Recalculated sandstone grain parameters used in the present study (after Dott, 1964; Basu et al., 1975; Dickinson
and Suczek, 1979; Ingersoll and Suczek, 1979; Dickinson et al. (1983) and Suttner and Dutta, 1986).
QFR
Q = Total quartz grains (Qm + Qp) where
Qm = Total monocrystalline quartz grains (Qmnu + Qmu) where
Qmnu = Monocrystalline nonundulat ory quartz grains
Qmu = Monocrystalline undulatory quartz grains
Qp = Total polycrystalline quartz grains (Qp2-3 + Qp > 3) where
Qp2-3 = Polycrystalline quartz 2-3 crystal units per grain
Qp > 3 = Polycrystalline quartz more than 3 crystal units per grain
F = Total feldspar grains (K + P) where
K = Potash feldspar
P = Plagioclase feldspar
R = Total rock fragments (Rm + Rs)
Rm = Metamorphic rock fragment
Rs = Sedimentary rock fragment
QtFL
Qt = Total quartz grains (Qmnu + Qmu + Qp2-3 + Qp > 3)
F = Total feldspar grains (K + P)
L = Total rock fragments (Rm + Rs)
QmFLt
Qm = Total monocrystalline quartz grains (Qmnu + Qmu)
F = Total feldspar grains (K + P)
Lt = L + Qp (Rm + Rs + Qp2- 3 + Qp > 3)
QpLvLs
Qp = Total polycrystalline quartz grains (Qp2-3 + Qp > 3)
Lv = Total volcanic rock fragments
Ls = Rs
LvLmLs
Lv = Total volcanic rock fragments
Lm = Total metamorphic rock fragments
Ls = Total sedimentary rock fragments
Qp/(F + R) and Qt/(F + R)
Qp = Total polycrystalline quartz grains (Qp2-3 + Qp > 3)
F = Total feldspar grains (K + P)
R = Total rock fragments (Rm + Rs)
Qt = Total quartz grains (Qmnu + Qmu + Qp2-3 + Qp > 3)

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 128
Table 4. Recalculated composition of Damuda sandstones of Talchir Gondwana basin.
Sandstone QFR and QtFL QmFLt QmPK QpLvLs
Qp
F
R
Qt
F
R

Q = Qt F R = L Qm F Lt Qm P K Qp Lv Ls
(a) Karharbari Formation
K-1 90.7 3.7 5.6 71.5 3.7 24.757.1 1.041.8 91.2 0.0 8.8 9.78 2.07
K-2 88.7 3.4 7.9 69.1 3.4 27.587.9 3.38.8 90.4 0.0 9.6 7.88 1.74
K-3 90.0 3.7 6.4 71.0 3.7 25.372.7 0.027.3 91.2 0.0 8.8 8.95 1.89
K-4 89.8 4.5 5.8 81.0 4.5 14.594.4 0.05.6 81.4 0.0 18.6 8.76 0.85
K-5 90.6 4.0 5.4 77.3 4.0 18.785.9 3.510.6 89.2 0.0 10.8 9.67 1.42
K-6 90.4 3.7 5.9 81.6 3.7 14.787.6 0.012.4 80.9 0.0 19.1 9.42 0.92
K-7 91.0 3.3 5.6 78.5 3.3 18.281.0 0.818.3 70.6 0.0 29.4 10.12 1.40
K-8 89.5 7.9 2.6 76.1 7.9 16.177.5 0.022.5 86.4 0.0 13.6 8.50 1.28
K-9 92.1 5.7 2.2 76.6 5.7 17.782.1 0.017.9 98.5 0.0 1.5 11.67 1.97
K-10 91.1 5.8 3.1 82.5 5.8 11.694.4 0.05.6 82.0 0.0 18.0 10.19 0.95
K-11 90.7 5.8 3.5 85.3 5.8 8.8 88.9 0.011.1 86.5 0.0 13.5 9.71 0.57
K-12 92.2 5.8 2.0 88.1 5.8 6.1 82.2 0.017.8 66.7 0.0 33.3 11.83 0.52
K-13 90.6 5.8 3.6 83.6 5.8 10.595.1 0.04.9 86.1 0.0 13.9 9.62 0.74
K-14 89.4 7.5 3.1 85.7 7.5 6.8 95.3 0.04.7 69.7 0.0 30.3 8.45 0.35
K-15 89.1 6.2 4.8 84.0 6.2 9.8 85.9 0.014.1 80.0 0.0 20.0 8.15 0.46
K-16 91.2 7.6 1.2 84.0 7.6 8.3 90.5 0.09.5 93.0 0.0 7.0 10.30 0.80
K-17 89.3 8.9 1.8 73.9 8.9 17.288.0 0.511.6 96.3 0.0 3.7 8.35 1.44
K-18 92.7 3.9 3.4 90.7 3.9 5.4 83.3 0.016.7 40.0 0.0 60.0 12.70 0.28
K-19 92.6 4.3 3.2 87.0 4.3 8.7 73.5 0.625.9 74.3 0.0 25.7 12.43 0.74
K-20 92.1 5.8 2.1 87.2 5.8 7.0 80.4 0.019.6 80.8 0.0 19.2 11.62 0.62
K-21 91.5 3.8 4.6 77.3 3.8 18.875.2 0.024.8 97.4 0.0 2.6 10.82 1.68
K-22 92.8 5.0 2.2 90.9 5.0 4.1 72.4 0.727.0 58.3 0.0 41.7 12.96 0.27
K-23 90.4 3.8 5.9 76.7 3.8 19.589.4 0.010.6 85.5 0.0 14.5 9.37 1.41
K-24 90.7 6.5 2.8 82.9 6.5 10.684.1 0.415.5 85.7 0.0 14.3 9.74 0.84
K-25 91.2 5.9 2.9 84.5 5.9 9.6 86.2 0.013.8 84.8 0.0 15.2 11.02 0.87
(a) Barakar Formation
B-1 86.7 6.2 7.1 66.0 6.2 27.891.4 2.56.1 74.5 0.0 25.5 6.51 1.56
B-2 87.1 3.4 9.4 69.6 3.4 27.095.3 2.62.1 65.1 0.0 34.9 6.78 1.37
B-3 88.8 4.9 6.2 66.9 4.9 28.293.1 2.74.2 82.3 0.0 17.7 7.94 1.96
B-4 83.8 3.9 12.3 56.0 3.9 40.193.4 3.33.3 74.6 0.0 25.4 5.17 1.72
B-5 84.8 7.3 7.9 50.5 7.3 42.287.4 1.710.9 81.3 0.0 18.7 5.58 2.26
B-6 80.1 8.5 11.4 65.8 8.5 25.788.5 0.610.9 56.6 0.0 43.4 4.02 0.72
B-7 83.6 6.7 9.7 68.1 6.7 25.391.1 1.47.6 62.1 0.0 37.9 5.11 0.95

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 129
B-8 82.2 5.9 11.9 68.0 5.9 26.192.0 3.44.6 54.4 0.0 45.6 4.60 0.79
B-9 85.0 7.1 8.0 58.4 7.1 34.589.2 0.610.2 77.0 0.0 23.0 5.66 1.77
B-10 85.8 5.0 9.2 66.2 5.0 28.892.9 0.56.6 68.2 0.0 31.8 6.04 1.38
B-11 86.6 6.1 7.3 63.8 6.1 30.191.3 0.08.7 75.7 0.0 24.3 6.45 1.70
B-12 82.4 5.1 12.5 64.5 5.1 30.492.7 1.16.2 58.9 0.0 41.1 4.68 1.02
B-13 83.5 6.5 10.0 64.7 6.5 28.990.9 1.17.9 65.4 0.0 34.6 5.08 1.15
B-14 89.5 4.4 6.1 70.5 4.4 25.194.1 0.75.2 75.5 0.0 24.5 8.50 1.80
B-15 86.6 5.4 7.9 66.3 5.4 28.292.4 0.96.7 71.9 0.0 28.1 6.48 1.52
B-16 81.1 7.2 11.8 64.7 7.2 28.290.0 1.28.8 58.2 0.0 41.8 4.28 0.86
B-17 81.5 7.2 11.3 60.9 7.2 31.989.4 1.59.1 64.5 0.0 35.5 4.40 1.11
B-18 85.1 9.5 5.3 63.1 9.5 27.386.9 1.311.8 84.5 0.0 15.5 5.72 1.48
B-19 81.1 5.0 13.9 58.7 5.0 36.292.1 2.85.1 61.6 0.0 38.4 4.28 1.18
B-20 81.1 6.9 12.0 52.6 6.9 40.588.4 2.19.5 70.3 0.0 29.7 4.28 1.50
B-21 82.9 12.8 4.3 43.9 12.8 43.377.5 2.020.5 90.0 0.0 10.0 4.85 2.28
B-22 82.1 9.7 8.2 50.1 9.7 40.283.8 0.815.5 79.7 0.0 20.3 4.59 1.79
B-23 80.7 8.7 10.6 59.1 8.7 32.287.2 4.08.8 67.1 0.0 32.9 4.18 1.12
B-24 80.3 6.6 13.1 61.1 6.6 32.490.3 1.58.2 63.1 0.0 36.9 4.07 0.97
B-25 85.2 12.0 2.8 70.2 12.0 17.885.4 6.58.2 84.4 0.0 15.6 5.76 1.01
B-26 84.9 3.7 11.4 55.4 3.7 40.993.8 2.63.6 76.4 0.0 23.6 5.62 1.95
B-27 86.4 8.6 5.0 65.7 8.6 25.788.5 4.67.0 80.6 0.0 19.4 6.37 1.53
B-28 89.6 6.4 4.0 62.0 6.4 31.790.7 3.95.5 88.6 0.0 11.4 8.61 2.66
B-29 84.1 6.0 9.9 73.0 6.0 21.092.4 2.45.2 52.7 0.0 47.3 5.28 0.69
B-30 88.9 6.0 5.1 73.3 6.0 20.892.5 2.64.9 75.2 0.0 24.8 8.00 1.41
B-31 85.6 4.6 9.8 67.2 4.6 28.293.6 2.83.6 65.2 0.0 34.8 5.94 1.28
B-32 81.2 5.3 13.5 56.9 5.3 37.891.5 5.03.5 64.3 0.0 35.7 4.31 1.29
B-33 80.9 5.0 14.0 60.3 5.0 34.792.3 4.53.2 59.5 0.0 40.5 4.24 1.08
B-34 84.4 12.4 3.2 69.9 12.4 17.784.9 3.211.8 82.0 0.0 18.0 5.42 0.93
B-35 88.4 4.0 7.6 67.1 4.0 29.094.4 1.93.7 81.9 0.0 18.1 7.61 1.84
B-36 87.0 5.7 7.4 70.4 5.7 23.992.6 3.04.5 76.0 0.0 24.0 6.67 1.27
B-37 88.2 6.2 5.6 72.4 6.2 21.492.1 3.93.9 74.0 0.0 26.0 7.51 1.35
B-38 86.4 4.7 8.9 57.0 4.7 38.392.4 3.83.8 76.7 0.0 23.3 6.34 2.16
B-39 82.0 7.5 10.4 68.9 7.5 23.590.2 8.31.6 55.7 0.0 44.3 4.57 0.73
B-40 88.7 2.2 9.1 68.4 2.2 29.496.8 2.01.1 69.2 0.0 30.8 7.86 1.80
B-41 81.7 3.4 14.9 63.8 3.4 32.895.0 3.41.6 55.0 0.0 45.0 4.45 0.97
B-42 84.4 5.4 10.2 62.2 5.4 32.492.0 2.75.2 68.6 0.0 31.4 5.43 1.43
B-43 85.0 3.9 11.1 65.7 3.9 30.594.4 3.02.5 63.6 0.0 36.4 5.68 1.29
B-44 85.4 4.0 10.7 69.0 4.0 27.194.6 2.43.0 60.5 0.0 39.5 5.83 1.12

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 130
B-45 78.4 6.7 14.8 63.6 6.7 29.790.4 4.35.3 50.0 0.0 50.0 3.63 0.69
(a) Barren Measures Formation
BM-1 58.2 27.5 14.4 36.6 27.5 35.995.1 1.43.6 80.5 0.0 19.5 1.39 0.52
BM-2 83.1 10.9 6.0 79.6 10.9 9.5 95.3 1.13.6 58.3 0.0 41.7 4.91 0.21
BM-3 69.4 12.7 18.0 33.8 12.7 53.595.1 1.23.7 85.6 0.0 14.4 2.26 1.16
BM-4 90.5 2.6 6.9 44.0 2.6 53.494.7 1.53.8 94.7 0.0 5.3 9.55 4.91
BM-5 88.4 5.6 6.0 33.8 5.6 60.695.1 0.04.9 95.2 0.0 4.8 7.64 4.72
BM-6 85.1 8.4 6.5 59.5 8.4 32.195.7 0.83.6 94.4 0.0 5.6 5.72 1.72
BM-7 79.1 15.4 5.5 65.6 15.4 19.095.9 0.04.1 89.4 0.0 10.6 3.78 0.65
BM-8 71.1 17.5 11.4 60.2 17.5 22.390.6 0.68.8 94.7 0.0 5.3 2.46 0.38
BM-9 81.7 11.2 7.1 51.3 11.2 37.593.0 0.07.0 95.0 0.0 5.0 4.47 1.67
BM-10 90.4 4.2 5.4 71.3 4.2 24.693.4 0.06.6 100.00.0 0.0 9.44 2.00
BM-11 87.9 7.3 4.8 58.4 7.3 34.393.6 0.46.0 97.9 0.0 2.1 7.29 2.45
BM-12 82.0 10.1 7.9 41.1 10.1 48.793.9 0.06.1 93.5 0.0 6.5 4.55 2.27
BM-13 90.1 3.4 6.5 66.8 3.4 29.893.5 0.06.5 92.4 0.0 7.6 9.08 2.35
BM-14 91.6 2.9 5.5 58.2 2.9 38.992.0 0.08.0 96.3 0.0 3.7 10.96 4.00
BM-15 85.8 10.0 4.2 60.9 10.0 29.093.2 0.06.8 93.1 0.0 6.9 6.02 1.74
BM-16 86.4 8.4 5.2 80.4 8.4 11.291.7 0.08.3 88.2 0.0 11.8 6.35 0.44
BM-17 88.5 9.1 2.4 66.4 9.1 24.589.2 0.210.5 100.00.0 0.0 7.67 1.91
BM-18 87.0 10.3 2.7 51.6 10.3 38.195.9 0.43.8 100.00.0 0.0 6.69 2.72
BM-19 79.0 18.5 2.6 51.1 18.5 30.595.3 0.54.2 98.5 0.0 1.5 3.76 1.33
BM-20 74.8 15.1 10.1 62.2 15.1 22.793.7 0.36.0 88.2 0.0 11.8 2.97 0.50
BM-21 78.5 14.9 6.6 45.0 14.9 40.195.3 1.23.6 93.1 0.0 6.9 3.65 1.56
BM-22 76.2 18.8 4.9 49.3 18.8 31.894.8 1.43.7 93.8 0.0 6.3 3.21 1.13
BM-23 78.5 8.3 13.2 70.1 8.3 21.595.3 0.83.9 70.6 0.0 29.4 3.65 0.39
BM-24 83.5 11.8 4.7 62.6 11.8 25.592.7 0.27.0 91.8 0.0 8.2 5.06 1.26
BM-25 85.6 9.6 4.8 60.4 9.6 30.093.5 0.46.1 93.2 0.0 6.8 5.92 1.74
BM-26 77.3 17.1 5.6 64.9 17.1 18.095.1 1.43.6 85.7 0.0 14.3 3.40 0.55
BM-27 78.6 11.8 9.6 57.8 11.8 30.595.3 1.13.6 88.6 0.0 11.4 3.68 0.98
BM-28 87.6 6.9 5.6 69.1 6.9 24.095.1 1.23.7 87.8 0.0 12.2 7.03 1.48
BM-29 84.5 12.0 3.5 64.5 12.0 23.594.7 1.53.8 93.2 0.0 6.8 5.43 1.28
BM-30 89.3 6.9 3.8 65.9 6.9 27.295.1 0.04.9 94.2 0.0 5.8 8.35 2.19
BM-31 91.8 3.1 5.1 82.9 3.1 14.095.7 0.83.6 79.3 0.0 20.7 11.24 1.10
BM-32 83.2 3.8 13.0 77.9 3.8 18.395.9 0.04.1 53.8 0.0 46.2 4.95 0.32
BM-33 82.9 13.1 4.1 81.0 13.1 5.9 90.6 0.68.8 56.3 0.0 43.8 4.83 0.11
BM-34 76.0 20.6 3.4 70.8 20.6 8.6 93.0 0.07.0 89.5 0.0 10.5 3.17 0.22
BM-35 83.2 11.2 5.6 59.3 11.2 29.593.4 0.06.6 90.1 0.0 9.9 4.96 1.42

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 131
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. QFR ternary diagram of Dott’s sandstone classi-
fication. (a) Karharbari formation (b) Barakar formation (c)
Barren measures formation. Symbols Q, F and R are as per
Table 3.
monocrystalline undulatory quartz and accessory miner-
als show steady decreasing and increasing trends respec-
tively in upward progression (Figure 4).
5. Provenance
5.1. Lithology
Palaeocurrent analyses [22-23] have indicated west-
northwesterly to northwesterly palaeoflow during Da-
muda sedimentation suggesting that the sediments were
derived from southeasterly source areas occupied by the
Eastern Ghats Supergroup of rocks of Precambrian age
(Figure 1(b)). The Eastern Ghats Supergroup lying to
the south of the Talchir basin is composed of metamor-
phic rocks like khondalite, charnockite, leptynite, qua-
rtzite, acid-gneiss, pyroxene granulite and mica schist
intruded by granitic plutons, pegmatite veins and basic
igneous rocks. Plotting of different quartz types of the
Damuda sandstones in provenance discrimination dia-
gram of Basu et al. (Figure 5) [27] confirms the above
statement suggesting that the middle to upper rank meta-
morphic rocks dominantly contributed sediments to the
Talchir Gondwana basin during Damuda sedimentation.
Granitic plutons, pegmatite veins, basic igneous rocks
and mica schist account for a few plots of quartz types in
plutonic and low rank metamorphic fields (Figure 5).
Presence of khondalite and qu artzite pebbles within con-
glomerate beds of the Karharbari and the Barakar forma-
tions further supports this view.
5.2. Climate
The Early Lower Permian Talchir sediments were depo-
sited in cold climatic condition [30]. With advancement
of time, the climate gradually changed over from cold to
humid and finally to arid during deposition of the Kamthi
Formation. Plot of quartz: (feldspar + rock fragments) of
Damuda sandstones in the climate discrimination dia-
gram of Suttner and Dutta [6] suggest the prevalence of
humid climatic condition during Karharbari and Barakar
sedimentation (Figures 6(a)-(b)), which is supported by
the presence of coal seams within these formations. The
gradual change of climate from humid to arid must have
passed through semi-humid and semi-arid phases. The
semi-humid climatic condition is indicated by some plots
of quartz: (feldspar + rock fragments) of Barren Meas-
ures sandstones (Figure 6(c)). Presence of coaly streaks
in lower part of the Barren Measures Formation and
steady increase of iron oxide minerals in upward pro-
gression (Figure 4) adequately substantiate the ch ange of
climate during Damuda sedimentation. The semi-arid
climate of Middle Permian is possibly not represented in
Figure 6 due to inadequate sa mpling of sandstones fr om
the upper part of the Barren Measures Formation lying to
the north of the study area (Figure 2). Release of frame-
work grains and their preservation within Damuda sand-
stones also supports the climate change during Lower to
Middle Permian period. Generally, warm and humid
Figure 4. Vertical variation of lithologic parameters of Damuda sandstones.

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 132
Figure 5. Plot of Damuda sandstones in diamond diagram
of Basu et al. (1975).
climatic condition favours chemical weathering as a re-
sult of which the feldspars undergo chemical change and
are eliminated. The feldspar contents of the Karharbari,
Barakar and Barren Measures sandstones are 4.15%,
4.09% and 8.07% respectively (Table 2). Relatively
lesser amount of feldspars in Karharbari and Barakar
sandstones suggest deep chemical weathering in the
source area that led to elimination of the feldspars to
large extent. However, during Barren Measures sedi-
mentation the climate gradually warmed up as a result of
which the chemical weathering could not become vigor-
ous and many of the feldspars escaped chemical wea-
thering that accounts for relatively higher proportion of
feldspars in Barren Measures sandstones.
5.3. Tectonic Setting
The recalculated petrographic data were plotted in the
ternary diagrams of Dickinson and others [1-4] to unra-
vel the tectonic setting of provenance during Damuda
sedimentation. The Qt-F-L diagram emphasizes factors
controlled by provenance, relief, weathering and trans-
port mechanism. In this diagram, many of the Karharbari
samples fall in the craton interior and a few samples plot
in the recycled orogen province (Figure 7(a)). In con-
trast, most of the Barakar and Barren Measures samples
plot in the recycled orogen province (Figures 7(b)-(c)).
Global sandstone petrographic classifications suggest
that the petrofacies which plot within recycled orogen
provenance field are commonly derived from sedimen-
tary and metasedimentary sources, which were originally
deposited in passive continental margins [1,4]. In the
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. Bivariate log – log plot of Qt/(F + R) and Qp/(F + R) ratios of Damuda sandstones in climate discrimination diagram
of Suttner and Dutta (1986). (a) Karharbari formation (b) Barakar formation (c) Barren measures formation. Symbols Qt,
Qp, F and R are as per Table 3.

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 133
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7. Plot of Damuda sa ndstones in ternary provenance
discrimination diagram of Dickinson et al. (1983). (a) Kar-
harbari formation (b) Barakar formation (c) Barren mea-
sures formation. Symbols Qt, F and L are as per Table 3.
Qm-F-Lt diagram, the Karharbari samples fall both in the
craton interior and quartzose recycled fields (Figure 8(a))
almost in equal proportion. However, most of the Bara-
kar and Barren Measures samples plot in the quartzose
recycled province with a few in the transitional recycled
field (Figures 8(b), (c)). The Qm-P-K plot (Figure 9) of
the data shows that all the Damuda sediments were con-
tributed from continental block province. The Qp-Lv-Ls
diagram, which is based on rock fragment population
from a polygenetic source, gives a more deterministic
picture about the tectonic elements. In this plot, most of
the Karharbari and Barren Measures samples plot in the
mixed orogenic sands field (Figure 10 (a), (c)) while the
Barakar samples are concentrated in the collision suture
and fold-thrust belt source (Figure 10(b)). The study
suggests that the Damuda sands were mostly derived
from craton interior of the continental block as well as
quartzose and transitional recycled orogen sources.
Though the quartzose sands are mainly produced by
multicyclic reworking of cratons, the first cycle sedi-
ments derived from low relief granitic and gneissic be-
drocks under deep and prolonged weathering condition
contain substantial amount of quartzose sands [4].
It is to be noted that the Eastern Ghats Supergroup,
which has mainly contributed sands to the Talchir
Gondwana basin is dominantly composed of highly me-
tamorphosed gneisses, khondalites and charnockites.
Khondalites are dry metamorphic produ cts of arenaceous
and argillaceous sediments. On the other hand, the char-
nockites of acid and basic composition are either igneous
or metamorphic products of sediments rich in Fe, Mg
and Ca. Two types of charnockites have been recognized
in the Eastern Ghats Supergroup. The granulitic type is
considered to has been formed by high grade metamor-
phism of sediments where as the gran itic typ e is regarded
as a palingenetic product of khondalites under plutonic
conditions of metamorph ism. According to some authors
[31], the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) crosscut-
ting the trend lines of Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum
cratons is a classic example of Proterozoic continental
collision. The mobile belt comprising of Western Khon-
dalite Zone (WKZ), Eastern Khondalite Zone (EKZ) and
the median Central Migmatite Zone (CMZ) toge ther with
its cratonic basement of Western Charnockite Zone
(WCZ) and marginal zone has been thrust towards west
due to compression from the Enderby Land of East An-
tarctica [32]. Rifting commenced from 1400 – 1250 Ma
with emplacement of alkaline complexes that were de-
formed into nepheline gneisses. The rifting episode was
followed by deposition of quartz pebble conglomerate
(QPC) in the continental margin and greywacke-pellite
suit in deeper parts. Deformation, metamorphism and
granitic magmatism culminated in Eastern Ghats oroge-
ny between 950 - 1100 Ma. This phase was followed by
emplacement of anorthosite plutons and garnetiferous
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8. Plot of Damuda sandstones in ternary provenance discrimination diagram of Dickinson et al. (1983). (a) Karharbari
formation (b) Barakar formation (c) Barren measures formation. Symbols Qm, F and Lt are as per Table 3.

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 134
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9. Plot of Damuda sa ndstones in ternary provenance
discrimination diagram of Dickinson (1985). (a) Karharbari
formation (b) Barakar formation (c) Barren measures for-
mation. Symbols Qm, P and K are as per Table 3.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 10. Plot of Damuda sandstones in ternary prove-
nance discrimination diagram of Dickinson (1985). (a)
Karharbari formation (b) Barakar formation (c) Barren
measures formation. Symbols Qp, Lv and Ls are as per Ta-
ble 3.
granite at 800 - 900 Ma that lead to crustal stabilization
in Neoproterozo ic [33]. The study substantially confirms
the inferences derived from palaeocurrent analysis and
heavy mi n er al studies [22,24,34 ].
6. Statistical Analyses
6.1. Equality of Provenance Lithology
Equality of provenance lithology at the formation level
during Damuda sedimentation was tested employing the
multivariate statistical technique of equality of sample
means. Modal analysis data of dominant framework
grains like quartz (monocrystalline and polycrystalline),
feldspar (potash and plagioclase) and rock fragments
(metamorphic and sedimentary) were taken into consid-
eration for this analysis. The corrected sum of squares
and cross product matrices of the above parameters of all
the three formations were computed and pooled variance
and covariance matrices of pairs of formations were de-
termined. Since the overall provenance lithology of all
the three formations of the Damuda Group is broadly
same we assumed that these were drawn from multiva-
riate normal populations having the same unknown va-
riance and covariance matrix. We established the null
hypothesis (H0) as the mean vector of the parent popula-
tion of one formation is same as the mean vector of the
parent population from which the samples of second
formation were drawn. The computed and approximate
critical values of “F” are presented in Table 5. In all the
three cases, the computed values of “F” are more than
the critical values, which lead to the rejection of the null
hypothesis. The analyses suggest that mean values of the
lithological parameters (monocrystalline and polycrystal-
line quartz, potash and plagioclase feldspars and meta-
morphic and sedimentary rock fragments) of the Kar-
harbari, Barakar and Barren Measures formations are
different and varied in concomitant with Damuda sedi-
mentation. The mean paleocurrent directions of the Kar-
harbari, Barakar and Barren Measures formations are
west-northwest (298˚ ± 6˚), northwest (319˚ ± 4˚) and
west-northwest (292˚ ± 8˚) respectively [23] (Figure 2).
The differences between mean palaeocurrent vectors of
pairs of formations are statistically significant [23]. In
other words, changes of location of the source area, cli-
mate and gradual denudation lead to exposure of diverse
rock types, which liberated different amounts of quartz,
feldspar and rock fragments to the Talchir Gondwana
basin during Damuda sedimentation.
6.2. Discrimination Analysis
Linear discriminant functions were established between
pairs of formations of the Damuda Group and to ascer-
tain the results of equality of sample means. The linear
discriminant functions (LDFs) along with the F-test re-
sults are presented in Table 6. The discriminant indices,
Table 5. F-test results of formation pairs of the Damuda
group of the Talchir Gondwana basin.
Formation pairs Calculated value of
“F” Critical value of “F”
Karharbari and
Barakar 88.14 4.34 (6,63)*
Barakar and
Barren Measures 69.90 4.26 (6,73)*
Karharbari and
Barren Measures 15.45 4.47 (6,53)*
*Degrees of freedom of are given in the brackets. Significance levels are
0.001 in each case.

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 135
multivariate group means and projection of raw discri-
minant scores of the formation pairs are shown in Figure
11. In all the three cases, the computed values of “F” are
greater than the critical values at 0.001 significance level,
which suggest statistical significance of the discriminant
functions. In case of Karharbari – Barakar formation pair,
the discriminant index is 12.77. Discriminant scores
greater and lesser than this value represent Karharbari
and Barakar sandstones respectively (Figure 11(a)). The
zero value of misclassification ratio (Table 6) suggests
that the lithological parameters of these two formations
are strikingly different. It is to be noted that a remarkable
Boulder Gravel Unit of 40 - 60 m thickness separates
these two formations during the deposition of which the
source area was appreciably upraised with exposure of
different rock types during pre- and post-tectonic sedi-
mentation phases. Changes in provenance position from
south-southeast to southeast and resulting lithological
differences are responsible for the dissimilarity of
framework grains of Karharbari and Barakar sandstones.
In case of Barakar – Barren Measures formation pairs the
discriminant index is 13.36 (Table 6). Discriminant
scores lesser and greater than this value represent Bara-
kar and Barren Measures sandstones respectively. Statis-
tically significant difference in framework grains of these
two formations may be attributed to changes in the loca-
tion of the source area [23] and prevailing climatic con-
dition as a result of which different suits of minerals with
variable weathering states were contributed to the depo-
sitional basin. Misclassification ratio of 17.50% as indi-
Table 6. Discriminant function, discriminant index, multivariate group means, F-test results and misclassification ratio of
formation pairs of the Damuda group of the Talchir Gondwana basin.
Formation pairs Discriminant function, discriminant index and multivariate group meansCalculated
value of “F”Critical value of “F” Misclassification ratio (in percent)
Karharbari and
Barakar DK-B = 0.204Qm + 0.107Qp +0.107K + 0.129P + 0.120Rm + 0.113Rs R0 = 12.77, RK = 14.57, RB = 10.96 88.10 4.34 (6,63)* 00.00
Barakar and
Barren Measures DB-BM = 0.195Qm + 0.187Qp + 0.175K + 0.175P + 0.253Rm + 0.206Rs R0 = 13.36, RB = 12.94, RBM = 14.22 63.67 4.26 (6,73)* 17. 50
Karharbari and
Barren Measures DK-BM = 0.489Qm + 0.399Qp + 0.416K+ 0.391P + 0.393Rm + 0.393Rs
R0 = 35.19, RK = 37.01, RBM = 33.36 13.80 4.47 (6,53)* 28.33
Explanation of symbols: DK-B – Discriminant function between Karharbari and Barakar formations, DB-BM – Discriminant function between Barakar and Barren
Measures fo rmations, DK- BM – Discriminant function between Karharbari and Barren Measures formations, R0 – Discriminant index, RK, RB and RBM are group
means of Kar harbari , Barakar and Barr en Measu res fo rmations r espectiv ely, * - Deg rees of f reedom o f “F”. In al l the three cas es sig nifican ce levels ar e 0.00 1.
Symbols Qm, Qp, K, P, Rm and Rs are as per Table 3.
Figure 11. Projection of Damuda sandstones of the Talchir Gondwana basin onto the discriminant function line. (a) Karhar-
bari and Barakar formations (b) Barakar and Barren measures formations (c) Karharbari and Barren measures formations;
RK, RB and RBM are the projections of the multivariate means of Karharbari, Barakar and Barren measures sandstones re-
spectively. R0 is the discriminant index. Symbols as in Figure 5.

R. N. HOTA ET AL. 136
cated by overlapping of seven samples from each cate-
gory (Table 6 and Figure 11(b)) may be due to gradual
change over of sedimentation as Barakar and Barren
Measures are two contiguous formations of the Talchir
Gondwana basin without any major break in sedimenta-
tion. In case of Karharbari – Barren Measures formation
pairs the discriminant index is 35.19 (Figure 11(c)).
Discriminant scores greater and lesser than this value
represent Karharbari and Barren Measures sandstones
respectively (Table 6). Since the location of the proven-
ances of these two formations with respect to the de-
positional basin is same (west-northwest), the framework
lithology should have been identical. High value (28 .33 %)
of misclassification ratio may be attributed to this factor.
However, statistically significant difference of the fra-
mework grains as revealed by inequality of sample mean s
and linear discriminant function can be accredited to
considerable time gap in sedimentation, climatic change
and deep weathering that led to exposure of diverse rock
types in the source area.
7. Conclusions
Following conclusions have been drawn in the present
work:
1) The Karharbari, Barakar and Barren Measures
sandstones of the Damuda Group of the Talchir Gond-
wana basin are composed of different amounts of quartz,
feldspar and rock fragments. They are mostly arkosic-
and feldspathic-wackes with subordinate amount of quar-
tz-wacke.
2) The Eastern Ghats Supergroup composed of khon-
dalite, charnockite, leptyn ite, quartzite, acid-gneiss, mica
schist, pyroxene granulite, granite, pegmatite and basic
igneous rocks contributed sediments to the Talchir Gond-
wana basin.
3) The Damuda sedimentation was initiated in humid
tropical climate with deposition of the coal-bearing Kar-
harbari and Barakar formations. With advancement of
time, the climate gradually changed over to semi-humid
and semi-arid during Barren Measures sedimentation.
4) The tectonic settings of the provenance of the Da-
muda sandstones are craton interior, continental block
and recycled orogen provinces.
5) Statistical analyses suggest that th e d etrital gr ains of
the Karharbari, Barakar and Barren Measures formations
changed appreciably with advancement of Damuda se-
dimentation, which may be due to changes in the loca-
tion of the provenance, climatic condition and gradual
denudation that lead to exposure of different rocks in the
source area.
8. Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Director of Geology,
Govt. of Orissa for providing the borehole samples, to
Prof. K. L. Pandya for discussion and to the anonymous
reviewer for constructive suggestions.
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