Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

doi:10.4236/nr.2011.21006

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Natural Resources, 2011, 2, 35-53

doi:10.4236/nr.2011.21006 Published Online March 2011 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/nr)

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic

Mineral Commodities

Abdel-Zaher M. Abouzeid1, Abdel-Aziz M. Khalid2

1Department of Mining, Petroleum, and Metallurgy, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt,

2Geological Survey and Mineral Resources Authority, Cairo, Egypt.

E-mail: abdel.mabouzeid@gmail.com

Received November 1st, 2010; revised January 24th, 2011; accepted January 31st, 2011.

ABSTRACT

The mineral potential in Egypt is quite high. Almost all sorts of industrial minerals, metallic and non-metallic com-

modities exist in commercial amounts. However, Egypt imports many of the mineral commodities needed for the local

mineral industries. The main reason for this is that the in vestors, either the governmental or the p rivate sectors, refrain

from investing into the mineral industry for prospecting, evaluation, and developing the mining and mineral processing

technologies. This is because the return on investment in the min ing ind ustry is generally low and the pay back period is

relatively long compared with easy-to-get money projects. Another reason is the disarray of the mining laws and regu-

lations and lack of administrative capability to deal with domestic and international investors and solve the related

problems. Also, lack of skilled person nel in the field of mining and mineral p rocessing is an additio nal facto r for the set

back of the mining industry in Egypt. This is why the mining technology in Egypt is not very far from being primitive

and extremely simple, with the exception of the underground mining of coal, North of Sinai, and Abu-Tartur phosphate

mining, where fully automated long wall operations are designed. Also, the recent gold and tin-tantalum-niobium pro-

jects are being designed on modern surface mining and mineral processing technologies. The present review presents

an overview of the most important metallic mineral commodities in Egypt, their geological background, reserves and

production rates. A brief mention of the existing technologies for their exploitation is also highlighted.

Keywords: Egypt Mineral Resources, Geological Aspects; Mining, Mineral Processing, Metallic Ores, Mineral

Industry Investments

1. Introduction

Egyptian Civilization is one of the most ancient civiliza-

tions in the world, which practiced mining and process-

ing of metallic and non-metallic ores. The ancient Egyp-

tians quarried the dimensional stones in a very orderly

manner to obtain geometrically shaped blocks with exact

dimensions to build tombs, temples and pyramids. They

also cut-from extremely hard rocks such as granite, gab-

bros, and granodiorites-obelisks and blocks for hewing

statues and for recording their history on them. They also

traced the natural minerals, collected them, and treated

them to compose the ever-beautiful painting colors,

which stayed bright and persisted weather changes for

thousands of years. The Ancient Egyptians had an excel-

lent sense and knowledge about geology, survey, rock

mechanics and metallurgical processing. They worked

their way out in open pits, open cast, and underground

mining. Almost all gold and copper locations known at

present were originally discovered and worked out by the

Ancient Egyptians. The technology limitations in mining,

and processing, at that time, limited the mining depth,

and the overall efficiency of upgrading the ores. The first

known underground map (1300 BC), for El-Fawakhir

gold mine, is preserved in Turin museum in Italy.

There are evidences that the Ancient Egyptians mined

and extracted gold, silver, copper, and zinc. They used

these metals in their pure state and/or as alloys to suit

certain purposes. They designed and produced several

hard alloys such as bronze (90% Copper and 10 %

zinc). They also traced all sorts of gem stones in Sinai,

Eastern Desert, and Western Desert. They quarried lime-

stone, granite, marble, breccias, diorites, and granodiorite

stones.

Mining in Egypt today, follows almost the same meth-

odology as the Ancient Egyptians used to use thousands

of years ago. The main differences are in the introduction

of the modern technologies which are available today

and were not available then. The underground mines to-

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

day are much deeper, drainage of the underground water

is readily drained by means of pumps which were not

available at that time, the underground atmosphere is

conditioned by the up to date conditioning techniques

(ventilation and refrigeration), the underground openings

are electrically lightened, and the raw materials are me-

chanically transported [1]. However, the scale of mining

in Egypt at present is still small. The largest mining op-

eration, which is the iron ore mining, does not exceed 3

million ton/year [2].

1.1. Geological Background

The Egyptian territory is covered by crystalline basement

rocks belonging to Precambrian age and Phanerozoic

sediments which range in age from Cambrian to Recent.

The basement rocks form about 10% of the land surface

and are exposed in South Sinai, Eastern Desert, and

South West corner of Egypt [3].

The basement rocks of Southwest corner of Egypt crop

out from Egyptian-Libyan borders to Gabal Kamel as

continuous low land and ridges. From Gabal Kamel to

Aswan, the basement occurs as uplifting inliers. Richter

[4] and Richter and Schandelmeier [5] classified Pre-

cambrian rocks into three Formations starting from High

grade granulites (Granoblastic Formation), overlain by

the remobilized Anatexite Formation, and finally the

youngest clearly bedded Metasedimentary Formation.

All these formations were intruded by granodiorite and

porphyritic granite. This classification was used by

EGPC and CONOCO [6] in issuing a map of a scale

1:500 000 for the area. Naim et al. [7] used a simpler

classification system, where they classified these rocks as

old metamorphic rocks of probably Archean age to early

Proterozoic. Klerkx [8] and Sultan et al. [9] included

amphibolite, ortho- and para- gneisses of granulite and

amphibolite facies, which are intruded by calc-alkaline

granitoids and gabbros. The late magmatic rocks are

clearly related to Pan African. The main economic min-

erals in this region are Banded Iron Formation probably

of Lake Superior Type [10-12].

The basement rocks of Eastern Desert and Sinai form

part of Arabian-Nubian shield. More than one scenario

were proposed for the evolution of this shield, the more

acceptable one is that which assumed that the shield is

built up of arc(s)-inter arc(s) rock association [13,14].

The arc associations' complexes encompass the volcano-

sedimentary group. The arc-inter arc associations are

well illustrated by ophiolitic slabs (serpentinized ul-

tramafic rocks, tholeiitic Meta gabbros, mafic meta-

volcanics), thrusted over the arc complex terrain [15].

The evolution and cratonization of the arc group took

place between 900-550 Ma [16]. The arc-inter arc group

was intruded by syn-to late- tectonic calc-alkaline dio-

rite-granodiorite rocks through tectono-magmatic cycle

ended by cratonization, through thrusting, low angle

shearing and folding [17]. This stage was culminated by

granodiorite intrusion as in Meatiq and Hafafit areas at

612 Ma [18]. The Neoproterozoic crust was subjected to

regional NW-SE folding and intruded by granite, G1 [19]

and Dokhan volcanics [20]. Hammamat sediments which

are derived from volcanic rocks were deposited in intra

mountain basins [21]. The tectonic granite (younger

granite G2 and G3) [19] was intruded in the final stage of

Pan African tectono-magmatism [20]. During rifting

stage several ring complexes were intruded as intraplate

magmatism which could be emplaced during Paleozoic

or younger [22]. During Phanerozoic, three-within-plate

volcanic activities namely Katherine Volcanic, Wadi

Natash Volcanic, and Tertiary basalts and dolerites are

recorded.

The Phanerozoic sediments overlay uncomfortably the

basement rocks and cover 90% of the whole Egyptian

territory starting from Paleozoic to Quaternary.

Older Paleozoic rocks crop out near the basement con-

tacts in the Western Desert and in Sinai, but they sink

below younger sediments further North and West. In

Sinai the section is mostly sandstone usually ferruginous

and manganiferous in Um Bogma [23].

Mesozoic sediments are very unequally distributed.

Marine Triassic is found in Aref El Naga, whereas conti-

nental covers many areas in Egypt. The Jurassic age is

well developed in Gabal Maghara and South West of

Sinai, Khashm El Galala. Cretaceous sediments are

widely distributed and form about 40 % of the Egyptian

surface. The deposition of Cretaceous sediments is not

only governed by regression and transgression of fall and

rise of sea level, but also by renewal uplift of source ar-

eas and variations in continuous input linked to tectonism

along the continental margin [24] and within the craton

[25]. All phosphate deposits and white sands are the eco-

nomic minerals in Mesozoic.

The Cenozoic in Egypt witnessed three major events:

thin distribution in time and space, their mode of deposi-

tion, and N-E and S-W changes of facies [23]. The Pa-

leocene and Eocene rocks crop out in the Nile Valley

between Luxor and Cairo, Fayioum, Bahariya, Sinai, and

North Eastern Desert. Oligocene started with the uplift-

ing of Egyptian Craton with the rise of South Western

Desert of Egypt. It is well illustrated in Gabal Qatrani,

Gabal Ahmar, Safaga-Quseir area and around Mersa

Alam on the Red Sea, Baharia, and West of Nile Valley.

Miocene occupies one eighths of the total land surface

[26]. Sedimentation was greatly influenced by the tec-

tonic events which led to the formation of the Red Sea

[23]. 1t crops out at Red sea, South West of Sinai and

North Western Desert. Pliocene is represented in Red Sea

hills, Wadi Qena, Mediterranean Sea, Fayoum, Nile Val-

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities37

ley and Nile Delta, and Cairo-Suez district. Quaternary

deposits are widely distributed as wadi deposits, sand

dunes, and Sabkhas.

1.2. Economic Metallic Ores in Egypt

Several metallic ores were recorded in Egypt [27]. In the

present time, only iron and ilmenite are under mining

while manganese and chromite are mined in small scale.

The rest of metallic ores mainly, gold, Pb-Zn, Cu, Nb-Ta

deposits are still under exploration and re-estimation of

ore reserves.

Many attempts were done to classify these ores either

on the bases of time of deposition [28-30] or in the frame

of metalogenetic aspects [31,32]. The first linking be-

tween plate tectonic modeling for Arabian-Nubian shield

and mineralization was given by Garson and Shalaby

[33]. The latest classification was proposed by Botros

and Noor [34] where they classified the Egyptian ore

deposits on the bases of tectonic-magmatic stages as fol-

lows;

1.3. Island Arc Stage

A-Deposits formed in ophiolitic assemblage including

Cu-Ni-Co sulphides e.g. Abu Swayeil copper and Podi-

form chromite deposits.

B-Deposits formed in primitive island arc including

Banded Iron Formations, BIF, and its gold related depos-

its.

C-Deposits formed in mature island arc including

volcanic hosted base metal massive sulphides e.g. gold

related deposits such as Um Samuki.

1.4. Accretional Stage (Orogenic Stage)

A- Auriferous vein type.

B- Base metal vein type.

C- Titanoferrous iron ore, e.g., Abu Ghalqa ore deposit.

1.5. Late Orogenic-Extensional Stage

A- Cu-Ni sulphides Gabbro, Akarm

B- Titanoferrous iron ore, Kurabkanci

C- Association with granitic rocks:

-Beryllium, e.g., Um Kabu

-Tin –deposit e.g. Abu Dabbab

-Tungsten, e.g., Igla

-Fluorite, e.g., Homr Akarm

-Auriferous vein deposit, e.g., El Sid

This series of articles provides a statistical summary

about the most important mineral commodities in Egypt.

It also briefs the geological aspects, the mining, and min-

eral processing techniques used in the today’s mining

activities and the scale of the mining operations existing

in Egypt. Each commodity is preceded with the related

geological conditions and events. The mineral commodi-

ties can be classified as metallic and non-metallic depos-

its [1,2,11,35-41]. The most important of these deposits

are:

1) Metallic ores such as: iron ores, gold ores, industrial

metal oxides (Sn, Ta, Nb, W, and Mo), titanium and

titaniferous-iron ores, manganese ores, sulphide

mineralization (Pb, Zn, Cu, and Co), and chromite.

2) Non-metallic ores such as: phosphate, limestone,

dolomite, ornamental stones, quartz rock, white sands,

talc, feldspars, kaolin, fire clays, bentonite, gypsum,

fluorspar, sands and gravels, magnesite, evaporates

(salts), and coal.

The present work is an attempt to shed some lights on

the metallic ores in Egypt as a whole and to discuss the

technological problems facing their exploitation, i.e., no

specific mineralization classification will be strictly fol-

lowed. The metallic ores, which will be discussed here

in, are put according to the priority of their economic

impact on Egypt.

2. Iron Ores in Egypt

Iron ores in Egypt occur in two forms:

A. Banded Iron Formation (BIF), and

B. Ironstone.

The iron deposits in Egypt are shown in Figure 1 [27].

This figure shows the distribution of iron ores and iron

oxide traces all over Egypt. Most of the locations are

inter-related in origin to each other. The trend of the iron

oxides in Western Desert points out to a common source

of the iron deposits in this area.

2.1. Banded Iron Formation, BIF

This type of iron mineralization was recorded in Eastern

Desert in 13 localities between Safaga in the North and

Mersa Alam in the South, and in South Western Desert in

the area between Egyptian-Libyan border in the West to

Gabal Kamel in the East and extends outside Egypt to the

Libyan and Sudanese territories around Gabal Arkenu

and around Gabal Kissu, respectively [42].

2.1.1. Eastern Desert BIF

The most famous occurrences of BIF in Eastern Desert

are Wadi Kareim, Um Nar, Abu Marawat, El Dabbah,

Um Ghamis, Gabal El Hadid, Um Shadad, and Abu Di-

wan. The country rock of BIF is the island arc volcanic

(basalt, andesite, and dacite), and volcanoclastic rocks as

in Abu Marawat [43]. The volcanoclastic rocks are ac-

cumulated with BIF in intra-arc basins and intercalated

with BIF in the central part of Eastern Desert. The di-

mension of BIF band ranges in thickness from few cen-

timeters up to 5 meters with an average thickness of 1.5

m in most cases.

Um Nar BIF is a good example, where this area has

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Figure 1. Locations of iron mineral deposits in Egypt [27].

13.7 million tons with iron content up to 45 % Fe [32].

According to Dardir and El Chimi [44], this area is

mainly built of four litholotectonic units: 1-porphyritic

quartz granitoids, structurally overlaying a series of tec-

tonically mixed schists comprising acid and intermediate

tuffs, biotite, quartz, schists and phyllonite, and Serpen-

tinite which forms Gabal El Mayit ultramafic rocks. Um

Nar sequences overlie structurally the serpentinite rocks

of Gabal El Mayit. This group is folded into overturned

syncline, Figure 2 [45]. Figure 2 shows the complexity

of the iron formation at Um Nar and similar iron ore lo-

cations in the Eastern Desert. There are extensive folding

and faulting systems in the area. This structure reflects

the difficulties which may face the mining operations.

BIF in all outcrops exhibits oxide facies which is com-

posed of alternative iron rich bands with silica rich bands.

Carbonates and sulphides facies also do exist [46,47]. El

Dougdoug et al. [47], on the bases of the mineralogy of

Gabal El Hadid, stated that BIF exhibits the following

formations: 1-hematite-magnetite-jasper as oxide facies,

2-siderite-magnetite-chert as carbonate facies, and 3-

pyrite-magnetite as sulphides facies. Regarding the origin

of BIF, Botros [43] proposed a model for Abu Marawat

BIF, where he attributed the formation of BIF to the in-

teraction between volcanically derived fluids and sea

water. These fluids were capable to leach iron, silica, and

other associated elements including gold from basalt and

andesite in early stage of island arc volcanicity (imma-

ture island arc).

2.1.2. Western Desert BIF

BIF in Western Desert was discovered in two main areas

namely Gabal Nazar and Gabal Kamel. At Gabal Nazar

area, which lies just to the East of the Libyan borders, the

banded iron formation occurs as thin bands (5-10 m)

within amphibolite and quartzo-felsphathic gneisses [12,

38] and takes E-W and NE-SW trend. From economic

point of view, it is less important due to the intrusion of

huge granitic bodies which cut the extension of the ore.

Khalid and Diaf [12,38] recorded some gold anomalies in

this formation. At Gabal Kamel area, BIF was recorded

in the area between latitude 22˚00' to 22˚20' North and

longitude 25˚30' to 26˚40' East, which are covered by

Archean to early Proterozoic rocks [9]. These metamor-

phic rocks include garnet-granulite, mafic granulite,

para-and ortho-gneisses showing intense deformation

manifested by folding and faulting with at least four de-

formation phases [48]. The whole area had undergone

regional metamorphism from garnet granulite to amphi-

bolite facies [4]. Anatexis features are well developed in

the area.

The BIF occurs as strongly folded and faulted bands

within these Archean to Early Proterozoic high grade

metamorphic sequence. The formation attains 300 m

thickness and extends several kilometers in length, Fig-

ure 3 [7,11,39]. This figure shows the patchy formation

of the iron oxide blocks. These blocks are scattered verti-

cally and laterally. Mining of iron oxides in these areas

will be extremely difficult, and removal of the huge in-

ter-bedded quartzite and quartz will be highly costly. It

will require highly advanced selective mining techniques.

BIF in this area is classified according to the mode of

occurrence into three types: 1-well banded type, 2-brec-

ciated type, and 3-ferruginous chert [39]. The well

banded type is the predominant where iron rich bands

(magnetite, hematite, and goethite) alternate with micro-

crystalline silica rich bands (quartz, chert, and jasper).

Mineralogical studies revealed that opaque minerals are

magnetite, hematite, and goethite which are the main

minerals with some sulphides (pyrite, chalcopyrite, ar-

senopyrite, and covellite). Graphite was recorded in some

samples which could be attributed to metamor-phism of

carbonate facies [39]. The chemical analyses show that

iron oxides range between 16% and 55.5% [39]. On the

bases of geographic situation and major structural ele-

ments and mineralogical characteristics, Khattab et al.

[11] classified the BIF in this region into Western, Cen-

tral, and Eastern zones. They came to a conclusion that

the Central and Western parts are, economically, the

most promising areas. All the above mentioned authors

are inclined to consider this type of BIF as lake Superior

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Figure 2. Geological map of Um Narbanded iron formation, Eastern Desert, Egypt [45].

Figure 3. Geological map of Area K 7 in Central Zone of Gabal Kamel BIF [11].

to El Harra member of El Haffuf Formation; whereas El

Gedida iron ore belongs to Naqb Formation [50-52]. The

area is covered by Bahariya Formation (unfossiliferous

varicolored sandstone of Cenomanian age) followed by

El Heiz Formation (brownish limestone and sandy clay

beds), and El Haffuf Formation of sandstone, sandy clay,

and ferruginous beds, which are partly taken by the iron

ore deposit, Khuman Formation (chalky limestone), and

Naqb Formation of thick limestone beds with few marl

and clay associations. The iron content in the ironstone

Type of oxide facies and suggested deposition in epicon-

tinental marine basin with free access to the ocean [49].

2.2. Ironstone Deposits

Iron stone is the iron ore which is formed mainly

withinPhanerozoic sediments and is well represented in

Egypt in Bahariya and Aswan iron ores.

Bahariya Iron Ore: Several iron ore deposits are lo-

cated in Bahariya area, e.g., El Harra, El Heiz, Ghorabi,

El Gedida, and Nasser. The iron ore of El Harra belongs

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

deposits ranges from 30% to 58% Fe, and the manganese

content ranges from 0.7% to 7.66% Mn [52].

The stratigraphic position of Naqb Formation is partly

taken by iron ore deposits at El Gedida, El Harra, and

Ghorabi; where El Gedida iron ore member belongs to

iron deposits of Lower Middle Eocene (Naqb Formation)

and the upper Eocene (Abu Maharik Formation. The ore

is localized in the crest of anticline [53].

Origin of Ironstone Ores at Bahariya Oases: The ori-

gin of the existing Ironstone ores was discussed by sev-

eral authors [52-58]. El Shazly [59] assumed that the

Ghorabi iron ore was derived from the chemical weath-

ering of older rocks. El Bassyouny [52], on the bases of

detailed field work, stated that the iron content of El

Harra ironstone deposit increases in iron content towards

the fault and decreases gradually northward, away from

the fault, where ferruginous limestone crops out, and he

believes that the enrichment of iron took place by intense

metasomatism replacement which is believed to had

taken place in post middle Miocene–Eocene time, proba-

bly related to nearby volcanism. On the other hand, El

Aref and Lotfy [55] proposed karst genetic for El Ba-

hariya iron ore, where they suggested that the iron depos-

its were formed through lateritization processes during

the senile stage of post Eocene karst event. Karst depres-

sions and excavated unconformity acted as traps where

iron oxides are accumulated. Iron deposits together with

soil products also form surfacial crust (duricrust), cap-

ping and cementing highly subdued and altered carbonate

rocks. The evolution of megascopic and microscopic ore

fabrics, the oxidation of iron bearing minerals, and their

relation to the gangue and weathering products reflect the

changes in the moisture regimes and the physicochemical

conditions involved during the pedogenesis [55]. Hussein

[32] proposed a very important idea, where he considered

that most of the folds were generated by faulting affili-

ated with the Pelsuium mega-shear along which the Ba-

hariya Oases are located [58]. The present authors are

inclined to believe in this idea where along this zone iron

was recorded by Issawi [59] in Black Hills of high iron

content (up to 38% Fe). More iron discoveries are ex-

pected along this zone especially to the Southward direc-

tion, where the main iron source is Basement rocks

(Banded Iron Formation).

Figure 4, shows a map for Bahariya Oases with its

iron ore localities as related to each other geographically.

Only the exploitable iron ore in Bahariya Oases at El

Gedida area, which has little or no overburden. Origi-

nally, when mining started in this area in 1972, the mi-

nable reserves were estimated accurately by 135 Mt.

Today, the left minable reserves are estimated by only 63

Mt, which are just enough for about 15-20 years at the

present mining rate of 3 to 3.5 Mt/y. The other areas:

Ghorabi, Nasser, El Heiz, and El Harra are of low grade

ores and of high manganese content. In addition, these

areas have relatively thick overburden.

Aswan Iron Ore: Iron ore in this area was known since

Pharaonic time. In recent years it was the main supply of

iron ores for the Egyptian iron and steel industry till 1972

when it was replaced by Bahariya iron ore. According to

Hussein [32], the ore is a bedded oolitic type of Senonian

age in the form of two bands interbedded with ferrugi-

nous sandstone and clay capping Precambrian rocks.

The thickness of the bands varies from 0.2 to 3.5 m. The

main iron minerals are hematite with minor goethite

where quartz, gypsum, halite and clay are gangue miner-

als. The reserve was estimated between 121-135 million

tones with average content of 46.8% Fe [60]. The ore had

been formed under sedimentary lacustrine conditions

during Senonian sedimentation. Aswan iron ores were

used to feed the steel plant at Helwan from its establish-

ment in 1956 until 1972 when the Bahariya iron ore,

from El Gedida area, started to replace Aswan ore in the

iron and steel plant at Helwan.

The potentiality of discovering more iron ore is high

especially in the area between Bahariya Oases in the

North and Uwaynat area in the South on the bases of

geological and structural observations. Reserves and

production of iron ores in Egypt are shown in Table 1. In

this table, it is clear that Egypt is running short of the

available indigenous exploitable iron ores, which is

mainly in El Gedida area, Bahariya Oases, Western De-

sert. The Aswan iron ore is high in phosphorus content,

in addition to its peculiar formation. The Eastern Desert

BIF iron ores are of small quantities (about 50 million

tons in total in all localities) spread in a vast area of

about 200 km2. Uwaynat BIF iron ore has been recently

discovered and not thorough investigations (exploration,

reserve estimation, characterization and /or beneficiation)

have been carried out. In addition, the area is more than

600 km far from the inhabited Nile valley area, with little

or no infra structure. A preliminary project for mining,

processing, and pelletizing of Uwaynat iron ore deposit is

being proposed after the discovery of Uwaynat BIF

deposits [17,38,48]. Pilot scale mineral processing

tests showed that Uwaynat ore may be upgraded to 66 %

Fe at a reasonable recovery [39].

The mining method in all producing locations at pre-

sent is open pit mining [61]. The main iron ore process-

ing plant is at Bahariya Oases (El-Gedida Area) [61].

The plant consists of a jaw crusher followed by a cone

crusher to reduce the run-of-mine ore to the maximum

size required by the sinter plant at Helwan. Of course,

this is waste of energy and cost. The raw ore is trans-

ported, with all its gangue content, from the mine to the

steel plant for a distance of over 300 km. This represents

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Figure 4. Geological map of El Bahareya Oases. The important iron minerals lo c a li ties [51].

higher transportation costs, loss of energy in extraction,

lower unit productivity, waste of labor efforts, and so on.

It could have been more beneficial if the ore is concen-

trated in the mine site, i.e., raising the iron content of the

ore from 52 % Fe to 65 % Fe. This will overcome all the

above drawbacks of using the mined ore as it is. There

are modern technologies for upgrading such type of ores.

These technologies include flotation, flocculation/flota-

tion, high intensity magnetic separation, and magnetic

roasting followed by low intensity magnetic separation.

3. Gold in Egypt

Gold is recorded in Egypt in more than 95 occurrences

most of them were mined during Pharaonic age. Fifty

years ago on ward, extensive efforts were done by the

Geological Survey of Egypt (EGSMA) to explore gold in

the old mines areas and their vicinity. The earlier work

was conducted in co-operation with Russian Experts.

Through this exploration work new targets were intro-

duced such as alteration zones around gold bearing

quartz veins and banded iron formation. Also new areas

outside the known old mines were explored such as

South Sinai and South Western Desert [7,38,43,44,62-67

]. Several attempts were done to classify gold minerali-

zations, among these is the early classification mentioned

by Kochin and Bassyouni [28], where they classified this

mineralization on the bases of the mode of occurrence

and nature of mineralization into three types namely:

1-dyke type, 2-vein type, and 3-placer deposit. El Ramly

et al. [68,69] classified the gold deposits according to

their geographic situations into five regions, Figure 5.

Figure 5 shows the scattered occurrences of the ancient

gold localities in the Eastern Desert from Latitude 28ο

North down to 22˚ North. It also shows the five geo-

graphic regions according to El Ramly classification of

the gold deposits in the Eastern Desert. Gold deposits

were classified, based on the tectonic setting models ap-

plied to the evolution of Arabian-Nubian shield, into four

main formations; gold-sulphides formation, skarn gold

ferruginous formations, gold sulphide Formations, and

quartz vein formation. On the bases of tectonic setting

proposed to the evolution of Arabian-Nubian shield,

Botros [70] proposed a classification for gold mineraliza-

tion as summarized in Table 2.

It is obvious from Table 2 that gold mineralization

occurs in almost all the island arc and syn-magmatic

stage. This simply means that there is no specific lithol-

ogy that could be responsible for gold mineralization, but

certain gold mineralization could be hosted in certain

lithology. Up till now, economic gold deposits in Egypt

are related to quartz veins and adjacent alteration zones.

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Table 1. Iron ores information [27].

Area Location Reserves, M tons

Produc..,

1000 t/yAverage Assay, Fe %Associated constituents Remarks

Aswan

N-E Aswan

S-E Aswan

West Aswan

300

Mn, S, P, SiO2, Ti

Hematite

+hydrated

oxides

Eastern Desert

(BIF)*

W.Kareem

Um Nar

Abu Marwat

W.Dabbah

Um Khamees

G. Elhadid

Abou Rakab

El-Hendousi

Um Shaddad

Sitro

5.7

0.2

0.3

0.55

Si,Ti,P,Ca Magnetite+

Hematite

Bahariya Oases

Gedida

Ghorabi

Nasser

Al-Harrah

Al-Haiz

100

3,000

Mn,S,P,Cl,Si

P,Si

Hematite+

Geothite+

Limonite+

hydrogeotjite

Uwaynat (BIF)*

G.Nazar

G.Kamel

G.Arkenu

15-300 m

Thickness

Several kms Extention

12-42

Si,Au,Ag,

Cu,Pb,Zn

Magnetite+

Hematite+

Silicates

Black Sands) Rosetta-Rafah400 - 2-3 Si,Ti,Zr,Th, garnet Beach sands

Sinai na 150 Na

* Banded Iron Formation, BIF.

Most of the old mines have dumps and tailings contain-

ing appreciable amount of gold. This may be due to the

primitive technologies existed at that time or due to sud-

den shut down of mines. Gold mineralizations are found

in lithified placers, especially along basement sediments

contact zones, and disseminated gold, which probably

occurs in mafic and intermediate rocks. This postulation

should be tested. In this article, only one example is dis-

cussed here, Barramiya gold mine.

The Barramiya gold mine represents one of the impor-

tant gold mines in central Eastern Desert. It lies in mid-

way between Idfu on the Nile bank and Mersa Alam on

the Red Sea coast. The mineralization is confined to gold

bearing quartz veins and adjacent alteration zone. The

country rocks are mainly composed of ophiolitic mélange

where serpentinite forms a block in the Western part

which is transformed autometasomatically into talc-

carbonate in the central and Eastern part. The mineral-

ized quartz vein traverses actinolite-tremolite schists and

graphite schists. Graphite schists crop out around quartz

vein and may be acted as geochemical barrier and play

essential role in mineralization. Granitoid rocks of calc-

alkaline affinity (G1 type) are intruded in North and

South of the mine area. The quartz vein takes E-W strike

trend with dipping Northward by high angle (75˚-85˚),

and occupy the main axis of syncline. The average thick-

ness of the quartz vein is one meter and extends for about

800 meters. The alteration zone around the vein is about

6 meters thick, and mainly consists of intensively altered

graphite and tremolite-actinolite schists with ferruginous,

sercitization, kaolinazation process. These alterations

form zonations arranged as mentioned. Listweanite was

formed as lenses and bands as a result of combination of

silica and carbonate, and found to be gold bearing spots.

This mine has been subjected to detailed exploration

work by the Geological Survey of Egypt in co-operation

with Russian experts [71]. According to this detailed

study, the average gold in the quartz vein is estimated as

1.59 g/t, alteration zone 2.74 g/t, and listweanite 1.37

g/twith total reserve of 30 tons of gold [72].

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities43

Table 2. Classification of gold deposits [70].

Class Type of deposit Tectonic environment Type of

mineralization

Strata bound deposit a. gold hosted in Algoma type BIF Immature island arc Syngenetic mineraliza-

tion

b. Au hosted in tuffaceous sediments Mature island arc environment

c. Au hosted in volcanogenic

massive sulphide deposits

Non-strata bound

deposits A. vein type mineralization Continental margin environ-

ment

Epigenetic mineraliza-

tion

1- Auriferous quartz vein hosted in metamorphic

rocks and / or granitic surrounded

2- Auriferous quartz veins in sheared

ophiolitic ultramafic rocks

3- Auriferous quartz vein as associated

with porphyry copper

4-Auriferous quartz vein at contact

younger gabbro-granite Intraplate environment

5- Small amounts in quartz veins of

Sn,W,Ta,Nb mineralization

B. Disseminated type hosted in

hydrothermally altered rock

Continental margin and intra-

plate

Placer deposits A. modern placers Intra plate environment

1- Alluvial gold in wadis

2- Beach placers

B. Lithified placer

The most important recent gold activities in Egypt today

are: El Sukkary area (Centamine Limited, Pharaoh gold

mine) and Hamash area (Hamash Company). Table 3 pre-

sents the published information about the two areas [71].

In both areas, El-Sukkari and Hamash, commercial pro-

duction has just started. It is planned that surface mining,

open pit-open cast mining, will be the mining technique.

These are the most economic mining techniques for such

large, low grade (average gold content is 1.5 g/t) ores.

At Hamash, heap leaching will be used for dissolving

the precious metals. The heap leaching will be preceded

by crushing the run-of-mine ore and screening it to pass

10 mm. This screened product will be agglomerated,

using cement as a binder, and piled into heaps. The heaps

will be sprayed with cyanide solution, 0.5% - 1.0 % con-

centration, at pH 10 - 11 for about 80 - 100 days. The

pregnant solution will be passed on activated carbon to

adsorb the precious elements. These elements will be

stripped by hot cyanide solution. Gold winning will be

carried out by electrowinning, followed by gold purifica-

tion to obtain gold bullion containing more than 99.5 %

gold. Although the commercial production at Hamash

has not started yet, pilot scale testing proved the viability

of the process.

At El-Sukkari area, the crushed ore will be finely

ground for agitation leaching. The pregnant cyanide solu-

tion will be treated in a manner similar to that in Hamash

operation. The planned production rate at El Sukkari lo-

cation is about 7 tons of gold per year.

The mineral processing plants in both locations are

quite similar to the conventional world wide techniques.

They are as advanced as they can be.

Recently, gold was discovered at Uwaynat area, G.

Kamel and G. Nazar. The gold assay in this area is up to

14 g/t [7,11,38,48]. This area is recently bided for explo-

ration and exploitation [73].

3.1. Recent Bids for Gold Exploration and

Exploitation

There are Bids that were decided upon in 2007 for gold ex-

ploration and exploitation [73]. These bids are for the loca-

tions of: Um Balad, El-Fawakhier, Fatiri, Abu Mar-wat,

Wadi Kariem, Hodine, Dungash, Uwaynat, and Barramiya.

As a matter of fact, a second bid for gold exploration

and exploitation has been announced to the public for

additional areas in the Eastern Desert.

The Future of gold mining and processing in Egypt is

a bright one. Extensive exploration, mineralogical, petro-

graphic, and processing research work is necessary for

profitable exploitation of the gold resources in Egypt.

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Figure 5. Gold mineralization areas as classified into five

different regions [68,69].

The history of more than 100 ancient gold workings is an

indication of a huge gold source in the subsurface in the

Eastern Desert.

4. Industrial Metal Oxide Deposits

4.1. Tin-Tantalum-Niobium Deposits

Tin-Tantalum-Niobium deposits are genetically related

to late phase of granitic intrusions which generally form

small and simple intrusions of alkali to peralkali intra-

plate anorogenic granites. Most of the Sn, W, Mo,

Nb-Ta,REE,Be and F deposits are associated with this

type. The geological, mineralogical, and geochemical

characteristics of this mineralization let many authors to

propose the metasomatic origin [74]. The famous occur-

rences of this mineralization, which reach the economic

level, are Abu Dabbab, Neuweibi, Muelha, Um Naggat,

and Abu Rusheid. In the present article four areas are

Table 3. Recent active gold projects in Egypt. El Sukkary

and Hamash gold areas information [27].

a- El Sukkary area

InformationGrade, g/t Total amount

of rock, Mt.

Gold content,

M oz.

(Average) 1.42 64.53 2.944

(More than) 2.07 33.43 2.223

(More than) 16.50 0.15 0.082

Grades and

quantities

(More than) 40.40 0.15 0.2000

Total at cut off

grade 0.5 g/t(Grand average) 1.48 64.53 3.226

b- Hamash areas

Area Average

grade, g/t

Total amount

of rock, Mt.

Gold content,

M oz

Recoverable

gold, M oz *

Um Tondob0.8 120 3.2 1.2

Ara 1.5 5.0 0.25 0.166

Hamash

old mine 2.0-4.02.022 0.20225 0.022

Abou Tarda1.5-5.00.34825 0.040825 0.32

Total proved 127.37 3.693075 1.708

Total

probable 0.5-1.02,000 4.0 1.667

mentioned in some details.

Abu Dabbab: It is located about 20 km North of Mersa

Alam in the intersection of latitude 25º20' 27'' N and lon-

gitude 34º 32' 30'' E. The mineralization occupies an area

of about 0.06 km2 forming cone-like shape of 100 m ×

130 m. According to Sabet et al. [74], the tin, Tantalum,

and Niobium mineralization is restricted to apogranite of

the albitite type characterized by complex internal struc-

ture and interrelation of metasomatic facies. This granite

muscovite-microcline-quartz-albite apogranite makes up

the upper, central, and lower facies. The metasomatic

facies of the fissure zones, the greizen zone, and mineral-

ized quartz-feldspar veins are subordinate. Minerallogi-

cally, the ore consists of albite, microcline, quartz, mus-

covite, and topaz. Tantalite-columbite, pyrochlore, cas-

siterite, monazite, zircon, rutile, magnetite, galenite, and

sphalerite are the main ore minerals.

The reserve was estimated by several authors. Sabet et

al. [74] reported reserve as 20.6 million tons according

tocategory C2 with 274 ppm Ta2O5, 270 ppm Nb2O5 and

1080 ppm Sn on the average, whereas Anonymous [75]

stated that the rock reserves of Abu Dabbab is in the or-

der of 40 Mt. Naim et al. [76] reviewed the Abu Dabbab

ore reserves and calculated them as 7.3 million tons of

ore containing 0.0266% Ta2O5, 0.0123% Nb2O5, and

0.0165% SnO2. Gabal Nuweibi ore Latitude 25˚12' N and

Longitude34º 30' E: In this area, the ore is represented by

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities45

fine dissemination of tantalite, columbite, with sub-or-

dinate casseterite, fluorite, muscovite, accessory garnet,

zircon, and molybdenite in apogranite rocks. The reserves

are estimated by Naim et al., [76] as 114.7 million tons

of low grade ore with 161 ppm Ta2O5, and 91 g /t Nb2O5

Um Naggat: It is located in wadi Um Gheig, South of

Qusseir. It is composed of albitized and greizenized

pockets in granitic rocks. Tantalite and columbite occur

as disseminated minerals in the pockets at assays of

0.022% Ta2O5 and 0.2% Nb2O5.

Abu Rusheid: The ore in this area is represented by

disseminations of columbite, casseterite, monazite, xeno-

time, fluorite, zircon, thoragen, and microcline in mica

apogranite rocks. The mineralized rock formation is the

upper most part of the pssammitic gneiss that was sub-

jected to metasomatic alteration. The analysis of core

samples reflect that the ore contains 0.3% Nb2O5 and

0.033% Ta2O5.

4.2. Tin-Tungsten-Molybdenum

Mineralization

This type of mineralization was grouped by Hussein [32]

as deposits associated with granitic rocks generally of G2

and G3 types. Igla is an example of the tin-tungsten ores

near Mersa Alam, Eastern Desert [77].

Molybdenum mineralization: It occurs as disseminated

and vein type at Gabal Gattar, Abu Marwa, Abu Harba,

Um Disi and Homer Akarm [68,32]. Molybdenum miner-

als are associated with casseterite forming lateral zonation

started by Molybdenum and followed by Tin minerals.

Tungsten mineralization: Tungsten minerals occur

usually in association with tin minerals in Muelha and

Igla where in the latter area, Sn reaches up to 0.5 % and

W up to 0.06%. Also tungston associates Sn in Abu

Dabbab. There are some areas where W is the principal

mineral like in Abu Hammad, and Um Bisilla [32].

Tin mineralization: Tin occurs as disseminated and

vein type in Muelha, Abu Hammad, Fatira, Abu Kharif,

Abu Dabbab, and Nuweibi. At Muelha area the granite is

subjected to metasomatism and the rock is albitized and

altered to albite-microcline-quartz-Li-mica rock. Grei-

sens form lenses and quartz veins with some impregna-

tions of fluorite, cassiterite, powellite and Cu-Fe sul-

phides.

Tin in placer deposits: Tin was reported in several ar-

eas in Eastern Desert especially in the areas around the

main sources. Among these areas, Igla is the famous [77]

which lies west of Mersa Alam. The geological reserves

were calculated by Anwar et al. [78] as 245000 tons as

category D3 and as 170 000 tons Sn on D2 category.

Tin-tantalum-niobium ore at Abu Dabbab is a joint

venture between Egypt and Gibbsland Co [79]. It is

called Abu-Dabbab tantalum-tin-feldspar Project. The

reserves are estimated by 40 Mt of ore. The feasibility

study is based upon a design throughput of 1.26 Mt/y,

which is expected to go up to 2 Mt/y. In the first stage,

the production is estimated to be about 195 t/y Ta2O5

along with 980 t/y of tin metal during the first 20 years of

production. The technical information about this joint

venture is tabulated in Table 4, which presents the re-

serves in the close by locations in Abu Dabbab Valley.

These reserves are large enough compared with similar

worldwide Tin-tantalum-niobium ores in the world. It is

now in the stage of development and site preparation [80].

It is planned that the ore will be mined by a surface min-

ing technique. The capacity of the mineral processing

units will be of about 2 million tons/year. The processing

plant will consist of a size reduction section (crushing

and grinding using jaw crushers, and a SAG mill), flota-

tion, and magnetic separation followed by a dewatering

system to produce concentrations of tin and tantalum-

niobium oxides products. The Ta-Nb Product will be

used to produce Ta-Nb ferroalloys, Ta oxide, Nb oxide,

and ferroniobium alloys [80]. The 40 Mt Abu Dabbab

project is owned by the Egyptian registered company

Tantalum Egypt,in which Gibbsland has a 50% interest by

way of an incorporated joint venture with the Egyptian

Government.

5. Titanium Ores

The main source of titanium in Egypt is ilmenite. Ilmen-

ite is present in a rock form in different localities in the

Eastern Desert, and in the black sands on the Eastern part

of the Mediterranean Coast. Titanium ores information

are presented in Table 5.

5.1. Ilmenite and Titaniferous Iron Ores (Rock

Form)

Ilmenite and titaniferous iron ores exist in Egypt in at

least 10 localities with several dimensions. They are al-

ways associated with gabbroic rocks and formed by seg-

Table 4. Tin-Tantalum-Niobium ores information [79,80].

AreaLocation Reserves,

M tons

Produc.,

1000 t/y Average Content,

Eastern

Desert

Abou

Dabbab

Nuweibi

Um Naggat

Abu Rusheid

115

0.027 % Ta2O5,

0.020 % Nb2O5,

0.017 % Sn.

0.017 %Ta2O5,

0.015 % Nb2O5,

0.022 % Ta2O5,

0.200 % Nb2O5.

0.033 % Ta2O5,

0.300 % Nb2O5.

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

regation. Among these areas are Abu Ghalaqa, Korab-

kanci, Kolmnab, Abu Dahr, and Um Effin. The two most

economically promising deposits are those located at

Abu Ghalaqa and Korabkanci.

Abu Ghalaqa ilmenite: This area lies 17 km South

West of Abu Ghosoun port on the Red Sea coast and 100

km South of Mersa Alam city. The Ilmenite deposit is the

largest among the ilmenite localities in Egypt. It is con-

fined to gabbroic mass and occurs as a sheet-like body

taking NW-SE and SE trend, and dips 30˚ to the NE di-

rection. The main ilmenite mass forms a big lens with

exposed length about 300 m, and an average width of

about 150 m. The detailed studies given by Hussein [32]

revealed the presence of three types of ilmenite ore:

1-Red ore or oxidized zone on the surface,

2- Black ore or the main body, and

3-Disseminated ore

The mineralogical studies showed that the ore con-

tains the following minerals:

Ilmenite 67.4% - 68.8%

Hematite 13% - 18%

Secondary hematite 15%

Pyrite 0.13% - 2.1%

Other minerals 4% - 11%

The overall chemical analysis of the ore is:

Oxide oxidized zone fresh ore

TiO2 37.09% - 41.04% 33.9% - 37.65%

Fe2 O3 17.47% - 23.0% 6.34% - 23.85%

FeO 27.93% - 35.63% 25.94% - 31.33%

V2 O5 0.3%1 - 0.38% 0.29% - 0.39%

Korabkanci titano-magnetite ore: This area lies in the

South East corner of Egypt. According to Makhlouf et al.

[81], the ore occurs as seven layers concordant with lay-

ered mafic-ultramafic assemblage. These layers are of

steep exposure that dips mostly 80º - 90º to the East. The

ore bands occur in parallel layers taking NNE-SSW and

extend to about 2 500 m with width 50 - 80 m. The de-

posit exhibits medium to coarse grained texture. Miner-

alogically, it is composed of titano-magnetite, ilmenite,

hematite, goethite, sulphides with some olivine gangue.

The ore could be classified into massive and disseminated

ore according to the percentage of opaque minerals in the

rock. The massive part of the ore contains about 80% or

Table 5. Titanium and titaniferous iron ores [27,41].

Area Reserves,

M tons

Produc.,,

1000 t/y

Average

Assay,

Ti O2 %

Associated

constituents

Red Sea

Coast 40 120 30 - 38 Fe2O3,SiO2,

Clays,Silicates

Mediterranean

Coast(Black

sands)

400 - 2 - 3

SiO2,Mag.,

Rutile,Zircon,

monazite

more of opaque minerals.

5.2. Black Sands

Black sands in Egypt are beach placers deposited from

the Nile stream during flood seasons reaching the Medi-

terranean Sea at river mouth. It spreads on the beach East

of Rashid branch of the Nile and extends east to Rafah

passing through El Arish coastal plains [40]. Figure 6

shows the geographic distribution of the black sands in

Egypt. They spread along the Mediterranean Sea shore

from Alexandria West to Rafah East. The black sands

contain some economic minerals such as ilmenite, hema-

tite, rutile, magnetite, zircon, garnet, and monazite. Some

areas were studied in details and are briefly summarized

here.

Rashid East: This area is located 6 km North East of

Rashid, where the area is generally flat. Heavy concen-

trated black sands are deposited in a thin mantle near and

parallel to the shoreline. The thickness of the deposited

layer ranges from 0.5 m to more than 40 m. The concen-

tration and extension of the black sands to the West of

Rashid are of negligible economic value. According to

Naim et al. [41], the reserves of economic minerals at

Rashid area are as follows (in 1000 tons):

Ilmenite 2087

Magnetite 1437

Hematite 214

Zircon 81

Rutile 29

Garnet 72

Monazite 31

Sulphides 86

Heavy silicates 1315

The ore shows lateral variations where the high con-

centrate occurs in the West and decreases gradually to

the East.

Al Arish and Rommana areas: These areas extend

from 2 km West of Al Arish to the East of Sabkhat El

Bardaweel over an area of 18 km2. The total reserves in

this area, to a depth of 1 m, are about 88 million tons

with 1.1 million tons as proved ore. The proved reserves

to a depth of 10 m are estimated by 3 million tons of ore.

The concentration and extension of the black sands to the

East of Al Arish are negligible.

The ilmenite load, at Abu Ghalaqa, is about 100 meter

above the wadi level and extends to more than 200 m

below the wadi level. The wadi level itself is at about

240 m above Sea Level. The major lens covers an area of

150 m × 300 m. The present status of mining technol-

ogy is an open cast above the wadi level [1,40,82].

The Abu Ghalaqa ore is being mined by surface min-

ing. The benches are drilled, charged, and blasted. To

facilitate loading, transporting, and crushing, secondary

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Figure 6. Locations of the Egyptian Blac k Sand de posits between Rashid and Rafah on the Mediterranean Sea Coast [41].

blasting is applied on the oversize boulders. The ore is

transported to the upgrading plant near by (about 500 m).

In future it is thought to use underground mining for the

lowed part of the load (below the Wadi level) to reduce

the cost of overburden removal.

The grade of the ilmenite ore at Abou Ghalaqa is

slightly upgraded by manual hand picking of some of the

gangue minerals depending on difference in colors. The

ore is then crushed and screened to produce different size

fractions according to the end use. The only use for this

ore at the time being is for coating the oil-transport pipes

running under the sea water, i.e., is used as heavy gravel

in the concrete used for coating the oil-pipes under sea

water. Laboratory experiments, up to the pilot scale,

show that gravity separation, magnetic separation, and

flotation produce concentrates assaying up to 43 % TiO2.

There are several researches for extracting titanium slag

or titanium metal from the upgraded ore, but the results

are not encouraging due to the low content of TiO2 in the

concentrate.

Black sands are dredged or scraped, piled, and trans-

ported to a jungle of Humphrey spirals to scavenge out

most of the green sands. The concentrate is sent to the

processing plant for separating the heavy constituents

[40,41].

For the black sands, there was a plant in Alexandria

for concentrating the black sands and separating its vari-

ous constituents. This continued until 1970, after which

the plant was shut down due to technical problems, envi-

ronmental considerations as well as market saturation for

the products. Nowadays, there is a pilot plant at Rosetta

for developing a proper flow sheet to produce market

grade products.

The main flow sheet for black sand consists of a grav-

ity separation step to get rid of most of the green sands,

followed by a low intensity wet magnetic separator to

separate magnetite. The non-magnetic fraction is oven

dried to be prepared for the electrostatic separation step

that separates ilmenite. In a second electrostatic step,

rutile is separated. After separation of rutile, the rest is

taken to shaking tables to separate garnet and monazite

and reject the rest of the green sands.

6. Manganese Ores

Manganese ores occur in Egypt in two major localities

beside other several small occurrences [83]. The eco-

nomic deposits of manganese are Um Bogma in Sinai

and Elba in South Eastern Desert.

Um Bogma area lies in Central Western Sinai Man-

ganese occurs as lenses and lensoidal bodies with differ-

ent dimensions within Carboniferous sediments of Um

Bogma formation. The ore shows sudden contact with

dolomitic rocks and reflects stratiform type [30]. Mart

and Sass [84] classified the ore into two facies dolomite

facies and silty facies and they are inclined to shallow

marine environmental deposition of the ore on one hand.

On the other hand Attia [83] and others believed that the

ore was formed during metasomatic hydrothermal proc-

ess. The more recent work again supports the sedimenta-

tion origin [32].

Elba Manganese ore occurs within sedimentary rocks

of Miocene age in about 24 locations in Shalateen plain.

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

Manganese forms vein like type striking N 120 and N

130 in a zone of 7 km width and 70 km long. El Shazly

[30] proposed weathering products of basement rocks

rich in manganese as a source of the ore which deposited

in fissures and cracks with some replacement along frac-

ture walls. Basta and Saleeb [85] suggested epigenetic

origin in low temperature where manganese oxides pre-

vailed and absence of silica, carbonate and sulphides

which manifested in near surface deposition. Other Mn

occurrences are recorded in Wadi Malik near Ras Banas

and Abu Shaar El Qibli in Southern part of Esh El Mal-

laha range [3,32]. The reserves and production are given

in Table 6.

Manganese is mined in the different localities by un-

derground methods, mainly room and pillar. In the ex-

posed outcrops it is mined by surface mining techni-

ques. The iron oxides are highly disseminated in the

manganese oxide matrix, which makes the possibility of

upgrading the ore is limited.

The only processing steps carried out on the manga-

nese ores are crushing and screening. The prepared ore is

mixed with some imported high grade manganese ore

and fed to the smelter at Abu Zonaima, Sinai to produce

ferromanganese alloys [86]. The fines, under size frac-

tions, are piled in dump areas. It is expected that agglom-

eration and magnetic roasting, followed by low intensity

magnetic separation may improve the grade of the man-

ganese ore in the rejected fines, which in turn may in-

crease the manganese recovery.

7. Sulfide Mineralization in Egypt

7.1. Lead-Zinc Deposits

This type is located in Phanerozoic sediments and crops

out in seven areas in the Southern part in the Eastern De-

sert on the Red Sea Coast namely: Zug El Behar, Asel,

Wizr, Um Gheig, Abu Anz, Gabal El Rusas, and Ranga

[30,36,57,87]. It is restricted to lower part of Gabal El

Rusas Formation which unconformally located on the

Precambrian rocks in Zug El Behar and Asel areas. In the

other occurrences the mineralization belongs to Upper

Abu Dabbab Formation.

The primary sulphides are galena, sphalerite, pyrite,

marcasite which are transformed on the surface to ceru-

site, anglesite, smithosnite, hydrozincite, jarosite, and

limonite. Many authors are inclined to propose that the

replacement of limegrit by cold hydrothermal solutions

as the main origin of this mineralization. El Shazly [30]

and El Ramly et al. [68] suggested synsedimentary ori-

gin, whereas Hilmy et al. [88] pointed to the exhalative

sedimentary origin. On the basis of detailed work on Um

Gheig, Asel, and Zug El Behar areas, El Aref and

Amstutz [89] classified the mineralization into two

groups: 1) Pb-Zn as filling type in Um Gheig and Wizr,

and 2) stratiform galena in Zug el Behar and Asel. The

ore is restricted on the filling mass extend along the rift

taking NW-SE intercontinental rift and not necessarily to

be related to magmatic activity accompanying the rift.

The Geological Survey of Egypt estimates the reserves in

Um Gheig as 1.5 million tons with an average assay of

13.8% Zn and 2.3% Pb.

7.2. Copper Sediments

Several occurrences of copper were recorded in Phanero-

zoic sediments in Centre and West Sinai as secondary

malachite and in some places mixed with Manganese

(90). The reserves are limited.

7.3. Cu-Ni-Co Deposits

This type of mineralization is well represented in Abu

Swayel and El Geneina in South Eastern Desert. The ore

is closely related to mafic-ultramafic and gabbro of

ophiolitic rocks.

Abu Swayel deposit is located about 185 km South

Aswan. The main mineralized zone contains massive and

dissimenated deposit type being hosted in amphibolite

rocks, surrounded by biotite schists which could be rep-

resenting the metamorphosed equivalent of ophiolitic

gabbro and basalt [32]. The main minerals are pyrite,

pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, violarite, and ilmen-

ite. Malachite occurs in the oxidized zone. The reserves

are estimated as 185 000 tons containing 2.8% Cu and

1.57% Ni and minor concentration of Cobalt [32].

El Geneina deposit is located in the intersection of

Latitude 23º57'N and Longitude 34º37' E where gossans

with Cu and Ni do exist. Malachite and garnierite

stained gossans are associated with thrust slicks of mafic

rocks. Ore minerals are pyrite, pyrrohotite, and chalcopy-

rite. The metal assays are 0.17 % Cu and 0.38 % Ni [32].

Table 6. Manganese ores information [27].

Area Location Reserves, M tons Produc., 1000 t/y Average Content, MnO2 Associated constituents

Eastern

Desert

Esh El-Mallahah

W. Ma’alik

G.Elba & Abou Ramad

120

35.8-45.14

42.17

45.0

Fe2 O3, SiO2, clays

Sinai Abou Zunima 5 120 38 Fe2 O3, SiO2, clays

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities49

7.4. Cu-Ni Sulphide

This type of mineralization occurs in gabbro rocks at

Akarm (24º00'N and 34º17'E). The mineralization exhib-

its both massive and disseminated types within norite,

melanorite, and peridotite. The surface expression clearly

shows the presence of three zones of gossans which

could be related to three sulphide bands. The total re-

serves of this location are estimated as 700 000 tons with

0.95 % Cu-Ni [32].

7.5. Stratiform Massive Sulphides

This type of mineralization is represented by a group of

small deposits in South Eastern Desert, e.g., Um Samuki,

Helgit, Maakal, Darheeb, Abu Gurdi, Egat, and Al At-

shan.

Um Samuki deposit lies in the intersection of latitude

24º14' N and long 34º30 E. It is Zn-Cu-Pb deposit. The

area is mainly built of cal-alkaline island arc volcanics

andesite and their pyroclastics. As a result of these min-

eralization conditions, the area received intensive studies.

These studies attribute the mineralization to epigenetic

process, where it was introduced by hydrothermal solu-

tions along shear zones developed by replacement of pre-

existing rocks. On the contrary of epigenetic hydrother-

mal deposition, Hussein et al. [91] and Hussein [32] be-

lieved that this deposit is a massive sulphide body which

was deposited during the Abu Hamamid volcanics epi-

sode on the top of submarine volcanic vent system and

the sedimentation took place conformally with the en-

closing rocks at the interface between the volcanic pile

and sea water. The ore bodies overlay a stock work of

altered rocks resulting from intensive metasomatic ef-

fects induced by the ascending volcanic exhalation on the

channel ways through which they ascended [91]. The ore

body in the Western part assays 2.2 % Cu, 21.6 % Zn,

0.5 % Pb and 109 g/t Ag with total reserves of 200 000

tons [92] while the Eastern part is less in metal content

where Cu posses 1.8 %, Zn 13.6 % ,and Pb 3.4 %.

There are no mining activities in the sulphide miner-

alization areas except at Um Ghaig where the production

is at very small scale. Some of these localities were ex-

ploited by the Ancient Egyptians and used in manufac-

turing metallic alloys such as brass and bronze. The rest

of the sulfide ores in Egypt exists in small quantities,

which can not be exploited economically nowadays.

8. Chromite Deposits

Chromite deposits occur as small lenses of podiform

within serpentinite rocks of ophiolitic sequences at Gabal

Moqassem, Um El Tiyur, Sul Hamid, Um Krush, Wadi

Himur, Abu Dahr, Wadi Ghadir, Um Khariga and others.

Most of these locations lie South of Latitude 26º N [32].

The majority of these ores are exhausted. The origin of

chromite is attributed to early crystallization followed by

crystal settling from basic magma at spreading centers

during the formation of new oceanic crust which tectoni-

cally emplaced during accretion prior to cratonization

[32].

No large scale exploitation is reported in any of the

mentioned chromite occurrences. It is well known that

chromite ores can be beneficiated by gravity separation

and/or flotation depending on the ore constituents and the

economic liberation size.

9. Possible Areas for Investment in Mineral

Industry in Egypt

The following areas are open for serious investment in

the mineral industry, metallic commodities, in Egypt:

1) Mining and Mineral Processing of iron ores at:

Uwaynat (Western Desert), Eastern Desert, Baharya

Oases, and Aswan.

2) Integrated iron and steel industry.

3) Exploitation of ilmenite ores in the feasible areas.

4) Evaluation and exploitation of Beach Black Sands

for their strategic hevy minerals.

5) Exploration, Mining, Processing, and Extraction of:

gold, tin, tantalum, and niobium.

10. Conclusions

The mineral resources in Egypt are plenty. However, it

could be multiples of the known reserves if the appropri-

ate subsurface exploration technology is used. Extrapola-

tion of the available geological data suggests that with

some additional geological efforts, clear ideas could be

obtained about new mineral findings and/or extension of

the existing deposits. As has been presented above, the

simple primitive mining and mineral processing tech-

niques limit the production capacity and produce inferior

quality products, which lead to waste of resource, high

cost of extraction, and low quality product.

Most of the metallic mining activities in Egypt are in

the form of small operations, except for iron ore, which

is reflected on the production cost being high. The most

that is being done on any of the exploited commodities to

upgrade or clean them is crushing, grinding, screening

and sometimes grading and/or classification. Very little

up-to-date technology in this area is being adopted. The

concept of added value in the mineral industry in Egypt

is almost missing. As a result, the low grade mineral

products from such simple treatment are being marketed

locally or exported. Consequently, the exported low

grade mineral commodities are sold at ridiculously low

prices because of reluctance to up date the technology. It

is recommended that large scale mining operations and

processing plants, on the bases of advanced technology,

are to be introduced and implemented in the mineral in-

Mineral Industry in Egypt-Part I: Metallic Mineral Commodities

dustry in Egypt. These will lead to improved quality,

lower cost products, and more organized and inter-

related mining systems.

11. Acknowledgements

The Authors would like to thank their colleagues who

offered all kinds of help to them. Among those are Dr. A.

A. Negm, Dr. M. A. El Wageeh, Dr. A. Dardir, and Mr.

Wafae W. Ghobrial. They provided the Authors with

valuable information, and discussed the scientific mate-

rial with them. Thanks are also extended to Dr. G. Oz-

bayoglu and Dr. A. I. Arol from the Middle East Techni-

cal University at Ankara, Turkey for suggesting the topic

and inviting one of the Authors, Dr. Abouzeid, to present

the content of this article at their 11th International Min-

eral Processing Symposium at Belek-ANTALYA, TUR-

KEY (October, 2008). Great thanks and appreciation are

due to Miss. Eanass A. Abouzeid for her help in prepar-

ing the Figures and putting the manuscript in its final

form.

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