Open Journal of Social Sciences 2013. Vol.1, No.6, 62-72 Published Online November 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jss) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jss.2013.16011 Open Access Philosophy, Religion and the Environment in Africa: The Challenge of Human Value Education and Sustainability Ani Casimir Kingston Chukwunonyelum1,2, Mathew Chukwuelobe3, Ema Ome3 1Scientific Research Publishing Ltd., Irvine, USA 2Department of Philosophy, Institute of African Studies, University of Nsukka, Nsukka, Nigeria 3Department of Philosophy, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria Email: cepperngo@yahoo.com, mchukwuelobe@yahoo.co.uk, drommema@yahoo.com Received September 2013 Religious environmentalism is fast becoming a growing academic discipline with concerns on how to manage the human environment and save man’s resources for the future generations. Religious environ- mentalism has also become a catchphrase for a philosophy of desired value extraction and application of the core valuable principles of religion and philosophy to achieve t he sustainable management of the hu- man environment known to as the earth with its extractive resources. The environmental crisis facing the African continent is increasingly seen as a crisis of values and, religion, a primary source of human values (NASR, 2011), also seen as critical in the search for sustainable solutions to the crisis. The problems of man in the African environment are many. The efforts to use the frameworks of religion to design stra- tegic frameworks for their solution have become problematic as a result of the theoretical and philosophi- cal inability to evolve sustainable frameworks for the sustainable management of the environment in Africa to achieve the ends of pove r ty reduction and sustainable livelihoods for its inhabitants. This prob- lem is assumed by the article as challenge of further elucidation of the concepts of huma n value and sus- tainability as found both in religion and philosophy. Attempts to evolve a new set of programs for the sustainable environmental management in Africa will be made under the philosophy and tenor of reli- gious environmentalism pulling disciplines as varied as religious ethics, religious sociology, philosophy of religion and environmental philosophy. Keywords: Religious Environmentalism; Religious Ethics; Religious Sociology; Philosophy of Religion; Environmental Philosophy and Sustainability Introduction The thematic thrust of the 2013 conference “religion and sustainable environment” has brought into focus the statement which Odey Ona h (2013: p. 8) ascribed to Seyyed Hossein Nasir, the Iranian-American philosopher, who observed that “the environmental crisis is a fundamentally a crisis of values and that religions, being a primary source of values in any cul- ture, are thus implicated in the decisions humans make regard- ing the environment”. Much of what we know about religion today is problematic, disastrous and troubling as the violent conflicts and wa rs of sectarianism and terrorism continue to bombard our e ars daily about the Boko Haram; ritual murder for money purposes; the Arab spring, and the ongoing wars of democracy in Syria, Egy pt and the last one in Mali. It is hear- tening to know that religion has been man’s best friend in ter ms of reclaimi ng his lost divine image and heritage. Religion mark- ed the beginning of man’s noble ascent to glorious civilization through the march of refinement and numerous values that underpin the religious enterprise. However, Religion has been abused and misused for the selfish purposes and political plans of greedy and zealous elites in Nigeria, Africa and gl oba lly . The misappropriation of the noble philosophical and metaphys- ical essence of religion to serve the mundane machinations of man and his narrow groups does not reduce the true essence and values that could derive from the r e ligious experience, which the physicist Alber t Einstein, defined as “the experience of wonder-he who has it not is dead”. Outside philosophy, con- sidered as man’s first discipline, religion is man’s first natural calling before anything else , for it takes man back to his God and defines the proper rules and guidelines that should under- gird the relationship between men, his creator and his fellows. How do we use re ligion to manage our environment sustainably? In other words, thi s paper challenges us to seek critically for the best frameworks of applying the abstract values and norms as found in religion to manage the African human environmental challenges in a manner tha t wi ll release us from the present fears and crisis of environmental pollution, degradation, des- poliation and cli mat e change threatening the present and the future. Our environment has been created by Go d to serve our present and t he future needs of Africa; it was not created for us to destroy and desecrate in perpetuity. We are facing diverse environmental challenges and crisis in Africa which have nega- tive socio-economic consequences in our lives and that of the unborn generations. It is not for want of knowledge or lack of an abiding sustainable template that we keep on abusing and misusing our God-given environmental resources and wealth. It is the greed of the governing and cultural elites coupled wit h the poverty of the mass consciousness and recessionary eco- nomic fortunes that African countries continue to suffer; to continuously exploit her environment and its resources in an unsustainable manner to the detriment of the present and the
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access future. The thematic thrusts of the conference also coincided with the intel lect ua l cor e thrusts of the theoretical understand- ing of this paper because, just like the Conference’s basic qu e - ries, my presentation also seeks to ma ke the following enquiries posed by the president of your Association today in his opening statement viz: -What do you think religions can foster moral thinking and acting about the environment? -What kind of contributions mi ght they best they might make best to environmental initiatives? -Do you believe tha t you have a religious responsibility to protect the environment? To encourage others to do so? -Are western religions the caus e of environmental problems? -Can religions discover a moral voice on environmental issues? -Prove that the ear th is sacramental? -What is meant by the global, trans-religious phenomen- “The greening of religion”. As I pondered over my research work and the questions posed by Onah Augustine Odey (Phd), your president, I was doubly encouraged by the work I have done before today’s conference, since having met him for the first time it does appear that the Nigeria Association For the Study of Religion (NASR) did not make a mistake in commis- sioning me to present the outcome of my re searc h work that brings together a multi-disciplinary collection of social science scholarship under philosophy, psychology, religion, political science, environmental manage ment , and education. In its dis - ciplinary rigor, it has com pe lled my presentation to draw the best human values for these disciplines that could be tailor ed towards the achievement of religious environmentalism or what is being described today as “the greening of religion ”. Permi t me, however, to start the task of delivery by indulging in the necessary intellectual tasks of conceptual a nd philosophical elucidations of the key concepts involved in my paper. Conceptual and Philosophical Elucidations of Key Concepts This paper will, at this time, introduce the basic philosophi- cal definition and clarification of terms and expressions to en- hance a theoretical understanding of the tr aje ctor y of the paper. Philosophy/Philosophy of Religion According to Omoregbe (2002: p. xi) “philosophy could be seen as a free rational inquiry into the nature and meaning of reality ; a search for meaning, a search for understanding of reality ” In this search for understanding the basic tool of phi- losophy is logical reasoning that seeks to expose the nature of challenges and problems that face man such as the environ- mental dilemmas faced today by Africans. Seen as the mother of all disciplines and sciences, philosophy has an ally in reli- gion leading to the establishment of the ph ilosop hy of religion, which in itself, is seen as “the unprejudiced investigation into the nature, meaning and purpose of religion and the true value of religious tenets” (Omeregbe: p. xii). The values of these reli- gious tenets in the context of African traditional religion we shall further explore. Environment-Meaning and Applications The word environment is used by people in different fields of knowledge to talk about many things, and as result, they use the word differently. According to Oxford Advanced Learners dic- tionary, Fifth edition, the word “environment” is defined as “condition, circumstances, etc. affecting peoples’ lives, (2) nat- ural conditions for example, l an d , air and water in which we live”. According to the meanings ascribed in www.siemens.com/ Green-City-Index, environment is a noun that describes the “the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates or the setting or conditions in which a particular activity is carried on”. Business Dictionary.com sees environment as “the sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as of danger and damage. In psychology and medicine a person’s environment is the people, physical things, place s, and events that the person lives with. The environment affects the growth and development of the person. It affects the person’s behavior. It affects the per- son’s body and mind. Environment means all of the outside forces, events and things t hat act on a thing. A person’s envi- ronment is made up of everything that surrounds him or her, including houses, buildings, people, animals, land, temperature, water, light, a nd other living and non-living things. Living things do not simply exis t in their environment. They constant- ly interac t with it. Organisms change in response to conditions in their environment. T he environment consists of the i nte rac - tions among plants, animals, soil, water, temperature, light, and other living and non-living things. The views of the World Bank capture all the foregoing and give a sustainable dimension that links the environment, development, poverty reduction and the future together in the following observations: The environment is the complex set of physical, geographic, biological, soci al, cultural and political conditions that surround an individual or organism and tha t ultimat ely determine its form and the nature of its survival. The environment influences how people live and how societies devel op. For that reason, people, progress, economic development and the environment are closely linked. The environment can also pose risks. Air pollution, waterborne diseases, toxic chemicals, and natural disasters are some of the challenges the environment presents for mankind. Natural resources, land, water, and forests are being degraded at an alarming rate in many countries—and once they are gone, they are irreplaceable. For development to be sustainable—meeting the needs of the present without com- promising the ability of future generations to meet their needs— countries mus t take into account environmental concerns in addition to economic progress. Concern for a sound global environment is essential to fighting poverty, as the poorest people tend to live in the most vulnerable places. In sum mar y , the environment is the earth we dwell in as well as the surrounding biosphere. In the context of African tradi- tional cosmology and meta phy sic s, the environment of Africa is our mother earth. In the perspective of Igbo cosmology, the earth is our mother, mother earth, “ala”—the mother that gives birth, feeds, sustains and welcomes us back. In the framework of this paper, we are hugely indicted for abusing our mother and misusing her resources in Africa. When you abuse your mother and she curses you, you are in trouble. For mismanag- ing our environment and her rich resources Afri c a is cursed with its environmental crisis. How does religion see this chal- lenge? Religion—A Philosophical Exploration The word religion derives from three latin words as its roots,
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access namely, “ligare” (meaning to bind); “relegere” (meaning to unite, or to link; and “religio” (meaning relationship). From this definitional sourcing, the ety mology of the word “religion”, according to Omeregbe “shows that it is essentially a relation- ship, a link establi she d between two persons, na mely , the hu- man person and the divine person believed to exist”. From this we can further intuit t hat religion is about the relationship be- tween the human person and his creator; bet we en man and his fellows; between man and his environment and between man and his future. In this context, religion should ha ve sustainable solutions to give us about managing our relationship with our environment in Africa in manner that will help us to solve the environmental crisis in the continent. Religion, inspite and de- spite its foreign connotations and morphological imputations, is essentially culture and culture is a way of life of a people with its inherited principles of ma na ging its environment inclusive in its cosmology and ontological templates. Nevertheless, the word religion comes with a lot of serial interpretations and derivatives. This perspective gives a lot of relevance to not only the western religions but also the African traditional religions as we know them. Different religions according to Metuh, (1991: p. vii) developed in widely different contexts. My ap- plication of the religious framework in the search for sustaina- ble solutions to African e nde mic environmental challenges would be principally Afri can in scope, nature and its recom- mendations. However, African traditional religions have pecu- liar problems of their own. Accordingly these problems have been identified by Met u and Kanu (2010) as: 1) Its non-scriptural nature—there are no documentary sour- ces handed down by tradition as authentic sources of their reli- gious beliefs. The societies in which these religions are found are preliterate societies; 2) There are many African tribes, cultures and religions with language and cultural barriers f or researchers and interpreters (Mbiti, 1961: p. 1). This explains why the foreign religions under colonialism could not despite their best efforts discover the true essence of African religion and its similar human val- ues. Here we are affirming according to Vict or Krishnan Kanu (2010: p. 34) that despite the differences, “African traditional religion is as authentic as any foreign religion, if not superior to them with the supreme Being as a deity of monotheism and a source of Africa’s abiding humane value system”. 3) African traditional religions are part and parcel of the whole fabric of African cultural life cutting across its social, psychological, environmental, political, philosophical and ethi- cal systems. People who fail to see this interwoveness encoun- ter the problems of interpretation and reductionism when they see the African religious motifs in the light of the western mod- els. We can see that the “contents and beliefs of people of simple cultures, according to Durkheim (1980) should be studied in the broader framework of their “weltanschauung” or worldview. As argued by Evans-Prichard (1956: p. 313) “after the st ud y of a number of such African philosophies, the work of classification and comparision of their different religious tenets among them- selves and simila r concepts in western philosophy and theol og y can fairly begin”. According to Prichard, the African religious thinker, like the scientist, is “engaged in making models to explain his vast and varied experiences” in managing his life, his trials of life and the challenges of his environment. It is in this context that we will apply the model of human values drawn from the African religious experiences to make sense of the environmental dilemmas facing Africans tod ay. This con- ceptual model should be explored more to answer the tradition- al question-of what value is religion to man, his society, or as posed by this conference, to his environment? It comes down to the specific question how African Traditional religion can help man to manage the environmental challenges facing man today in Africa? For this response, it is relevant that we identify where the religion stands with nature and the environment of man in Africa. Professor Tagbo Ugwu (2013: p. 6) made the re- quisite observations in this direction, regarding t he nature of the relationship of the religion and the attitude it inspires in its followers to encourage sustainable environmental management thus: It is a religion founded on the African soil and its natural en- vironment, interwoven with the culture of the people. The en- vironmental friendly nature of the African Traditional religion is based on the fact that the religion finds expression in nature. This qualifies it to be categorized under the umbrella of natur e religion which according to Beye (1998) is a “useful analytical abstraction referring to any religious belief or prac tic e in which devotees consider nature to be the embodiment of divinity , sacredness, transcendence, spiritual power, or whatever cognate term one wishes to use. For instance, t he indigenous religion of Africans involves the belief in natural spirits that inhabit natural elements like the skies whic h control the rain tha t is important to the raising of crops and animals…Hence the preservation and conservation of these ecologic al features are important to African Traditional Religion. Pollution of the Enviro nme nt —“Alu”, “Nso”—An Igbo Spi ritual Concept of Environmental Impurity Man is born with and into an environment. The environment makes or ma rs him depending upon whether it grows into a positive or negative relationship between him and his environ- ment. T he environment is part and parcel of man’s metaphysi- cal and cosmological heritage in African traditional religion. The environment being pa rt and parcel of his mental, social and political psychology pos iti vely influences the mind and beha - vior of man. Each environment of man has a cultural typol ogy that determines his outlook and religion, leading to a new set of human values that determine his attitudes towards life, nature and his environment (Kalu & Victor, 2012: p. 36). We ha ve chosen the Igbo concept of the environment because it has more pragmatic significance to us in our environment. But what is said about the Igbo perspective in this paper applies to every other African tribe in a lesser or more degree. According to Metu (ix) Africans are quite capable of forming and do form abstract concepts which can be expressed in concrete terms. For the Igbo, environment stands for “ALA” (earth) and anything that vi ola tes t he purity and harmony of “ala” desecrates, de- grades and makes it impure. Both the violator and the violated earth and its parts must be cleansed and purified. For as noted by Monsignor Professor Obiora Ike (2001: p. 49) “ala remains the nearest and dearest, maintained to be a merciful mother, who increases the fertility of the soil and makes the fruit of the earth available to man’s livelihood” and understanding Africa’s earth or “ALA” or “ANI” is the foundation for ethics, religion and justice’. “ANI” is thus the source and custodian of the sacred laws, customs and tradition, ethics and values of the community . As further observed by I ke (pp. 52-53): respect and fear of the laws
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access of Ala make people fair in their dealings with others for as the custodian of morali ty and the giver of “omenala” (good laws and ethics) demands good de e ds and prohibits evil, whic h is termed “nso ala”; the igbo word for crime—“alu” or “nso Ala” simply means “offence against the land ” or “desecration of the earth”. Thus African traditional religion, in the context of Igbo lore and rituals, are environmentally sensitive, friendly and sustainable. It has both positive and negative approaches to environmental cleanliness and sustainable management. The positive is achieved through huma n value socialization and education whi le the nega t i ve is attained through religious ritual cleansing. Thus “alu (pollution) is dirt and the reflection of on dirt involves reflection on the rela ti on of order to disorder, be- ing and non-being, form to formlessness, life to death. For the Igbo, alu is essentially a religious phenomenon” (Metuh: p. 87). The i dea of pollution according to Douglas (1969: p. 337) is best understood in terms of t he English word dirt, defined as “matter out of place”; implying “a set of ordered relations and a contravention of that order so that, the pollution avoidance is a process of t idying up, ensuring that order in the external events conforms to the structure of idea s about the universe”. Meta - phorically and environmentally speaking, the African universe is out of order, out of plac e and out of tune with the best reli- gious human values bestowed upon us by our forefathers; and today, we stand on a pr eci pi ce of endangering our environment and the future of generations yet unborn. What are the envi- ronmental problems facing Africa? Environmental Challenges Facing Africa and Africans General Healt h Challenges Globally, we should be concerned about t he despoliation and degradation of our human habitation and environment because each year, according to the World Bank, 2013 report: • 3 million people die prematurely from waterborne diseases; • About 200,000 children under 5 die from diarrhea alone; • Around 1.6 million people die from exposure to cooking stove smoke inside their homes (Take note that most vic- tims are children and women from poor rural families who lack access to safe water, sanitation and modern household fuels); • A million people die from malaria, mostly in Sub-Saharan African countries; • A million people die from urban air pollution; • Respiratory infections, diarrhea and mala ria account for more than 20% of deaths in developing countries, according to the World Health Organization’s Burden of Disease re- port. Air/Sea/Other Environmental Pollutions Are Destroying t he Purity of Our African Future Pollution has greater consequences as it leads to destruction of fisheries; Crops are damaged; higher production costs rise for industries that must filter dirty air or water to maintai n product quality; extreme weather events (tornados, floods, hur- ricanes) a re occurring more frequently and affecting more people than ever before. In all t he s e , poor and indigenous communities, people a re the most vulnerable to environmental hazards just as people move to cities from rural areas, environ- mental problems will increase and the challenge of managing our environment with human values becomes more intense. Addressing Environmental Problems in Africa According to the 2012 report of the Africa Society, environ- mental problems constitute one of the key challenges on the African continent in the 21st century. Focus is gradually shift- ing from politics, wars, and poverty to environmental issues. This is mainly the result of the development of new technolo- gies, which has generated an increase in solid mineral mining, oil exploration, an increase in the number of plants and facto- ries, and the overall upsurge in the application of manufacturing tools. The quality and richness of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments have been polluted and subsequently de- clined. It is therefore safe to say that new developments in in- dustry and manufacturing are the root causes of environmental degradation over the past three decades. This has been exacer- bated by rapid population growth, urbanization, energy con- sumption, overgrazing, over-cultivation of lands, and industrial advancements engendered by globalization. Environmental problems in Africa are therefore part ly anth- ropogenic or hu m a n -induced, the res ul t of t he effect of selfish and coporate chemical and human wastes on all forms of eco- logical and human life. Natural causes as disruptive of envi- ronmental purity and harmony as anthropogenic. They consist of earthquakes (the Gr eat Ri ft Val ley is geol ogi cal ly acti ve and particularly susceptible to this phenomenon); hot springs and active volcanoes are also found to the extreme east of t he Rift Valley; erosion; deforestation; desertification; drought and water shortages resulting from the dry season. Evaluating the Negative Impact of Environmental Pollution The socioeconomic impact of environmental deterioration on Africa continues to pose a major problem to development, sta- bility, and daily li fe sty les. Africa has contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, responsible for global warming and the conti- nent is the most vulnerable to the negati ve consequences. Other dire consequences of this particular environmental degradation include: depletion of farming lands ; reduction of natural habitat for the survival of aquatic and land animals; depletion in bio- logical diversity (the variety of all life on ea rt h, the complex relationships among living things, and the relationships be- tween living things and their environment); Aquatic life pollu- tion, adversely affecting the livelihood of fishing communities and destroying fish and other water creatures. Other negati ve impact include water pollution caused by oil transmission through shipp i ng ports, poor water resources mana ge ment , ga s flaring, oil pipeline vandalization by oil communities; absence of effective national and regional basin development plans, and underestimation of t he groundwater potential to supplement irrigation and drinking water supplies. On the other, land pollu- tion, adversely affects the livelihood of farming communities. Environmental challenges are caused and aggravated by many factors caused by man. A recent report by Schmitt (2011: p. 49) makes the following sad observation linking man as a causative agent in environmental degradation, least of all cli- mate change globally: On balance, climat e change is most likely a result of t he ex- cessive waste of precious fossil resources such as oil, coal and gas, the destruction of humus and much more besides. This is,
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access in all probability, driven by the boundless greed for profit, the total indifference of the maj or ity of consumers, who can often only be induced through their hip-pockets to change their beha - vior, and in the inability of politicians to finally apply the pol- luter-pays principle and charge ful ly for those damages caused to the environment by the exploitation of the treasures of nature. Ds nature and his environment had been indicted as a causa- tive factor in today’s environmental crisis. Religion combines within its theoretical framework a philosophical and psycho- logical tools for explaining man bad behavior towards nature in Africa. Man’s behavior and attitude toward nature could be delineated in the context of many factors. One factor that ema- nates from the hum a n causative framework (as it affects Africa) is therefore unmanageable population growth in Africa. At approximately 2.2 percent annually, sub-Sa haran Africa ha s one of the world’s fastest growing populations. By the year 2025 the population of Africa is estimated to be over a billion. This means that environmental problems could double or triple. Poverty is another major problem on the Afri can continent as it has negative implications for the environment and leads to a greater exploitation of natural resources which worsens the environmental problems: agricultural growth is disrupted with commercial speculation of arable lands coupled with the mis- management of available water resources. Energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa is heavy leading to the domination of fuel consumption. The use of wood for fuel is common in both rural and urban locat i on s and accounts for approximately 70 percent of t ota l energy use, whi ch ulti- mately causes another problem—deforestation and pollution of the African skies. To put the African environmental problem in proper perspective, we shall use the exa mple of the dumping of useless electronic products on ou r shores in Nigeria and defore- station in Ethiopia. Foreign Dumping in Nigeria: Useless Electronics as Useful Electronic Products The Ba sel Action Network (BAN), a Seattle-based environ- mental group, ha s paid close attention to the e-waste exports to Nigeria and, in an October 2005 report, cited the manner in which such waste is used to fill up swamps. As the piles rise, they are periodica lly burned, spewing toxic f ume s . This is in addition to the fact that people, most ly children, scavenge through the waste, someti mes in their bare feet, while goats and chickens that later end up in meals also roam through the heaps. The Network further makes the following observations on the e-waste environmental degradation in Nigeria: As a vast arena for the repair and sale of imported second- hand electr onic s—computers, fax machines, cellular phones, Palm Pilots, televisions, and a number of othe r gadgets—the Ikeja Computer village in Lagos, Nigeria serves as a hub for t he advancement of Information Technology. But according to the Computer and Allied Product Dealers Association of Nigeria, most of these electronics, about 75 percent in fact, are ir re para- ble and, therefore, stylish junk. They subsequently end up in landfills and makeshift dumps, but the truth is they are not properly disposed of since Nigeria lacks the capacity to effec- tively handle electronic waste (e-waste). Even more disturbing is that a lot of thi s waste material is loaded with toxic metals and substances like lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, antimony trioxide, polybrominated fla me retardants, selenium, chromium, and cobalt. When burned, espec ial ly those encased in plastic, they emit harmful gases like carcinogenic dioxins and polya- romatic hydrocarbons, and le ach chemicals such as barium into the soil. T he I ke j a e-waste problem is not limited to Nigeria alone, as several African countries have become a dumping ground for ou t da ted electroni c equipment, in spite of the good intentions of donors and the fact that a good percentage of the items are relatively functional. The problem often arises from fraudulent shipping brokers who load containers with electronic rubbish, largely in a bi d to avoid paying tariffs. Deforestation in Ethiopia In Africa, deforestation is taken to mean a phenomenon when the indigenous peoples, especi al ly in rural areas or semi-urban settings deliberately clear forests for fuel (firewood), hunting, agriculture, housing development, or for religious functions. Deforestation is destructive as it entails removing the forest ecosystem by cutting the trees and changing the structure of the land to suit individual usage. With the second largest popula- tion in Africa, Ethiopia has bee n the victim of famine due to rain shortage and a depletion of its natural resources. Its low rainfall ha s been lowered even further by deforestation, which continues to worsen with population growth. Ethiopa, accord- ing to the UNEP report (2012) has suffered one of the worst environmental crisis as a result of deforestation over the dec- ades. As observed by the report, the reasons why this crisis is so damaging to the environment integrity of Ethiopia could be explained by environmental philosophy: From what we know in science and environmental philoso- phy, forests play a key role in preventing erosion, since the roots of tr ees protect the soil against washouts. Trees also retain soil water and, through the absorption of carbon monoxide, reduce global warming. Because Ethiopia lacks sufficient trees, the Bl ue Nile carries its soil and nutrients by water to the neighboring countries of Sudan and Egypt, where the land is very f ert ile . First, confirm that you have t he correct templ a te for your paper size. This te mpla te has been tailored for output on the custom paper size (21 cm * 28.5 cm). Prospective Sustainable Frameworks: An Exploratory Tr aj e c t or y A Phi lo-Religious P aradigm for Sustainable Management of the African Environment Under this framework, we shall apply the understanding that underpin the model that sees religion as the essential source of human values for the sustainable management of Africa’s en- vironmental challenges as identifie d in this paper. If the best model is the one that sees religion as the stud y of the ideal rela- tionships between man and God; man and his fellows; man and his environment, then we look up to religion as the solution to the management of the environment problems confronting Africa. In this wise, we are looking at sourcing these human values and using the concept of human value education to pro- tect and achieve environmental sustainability in Africa. We shall attempt therefore to create sustainable frameworks that could be appl i ed successfully in managing the African envi- ronmental challenges. Philosophical Vi ews/Values—Different Religious Views/Values Point Ti the Same Sustainabl e Ends The philosophical vi ew of the religious significance in hu-
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access man environmental management has been put down to religious environmentalism in the context of both environmental philos- ophy and philosophy of religion. From this view point, we are led directly to issues such as crisis of values , wrong attitudes, unsustainable environmental character and behavior, and da- maging human actions borne by selfish motives for profit that lead directly or indirectly to the pollution and degradation of our environment and resources in Africa. Each religion has its own environmental philosophy and creedal understanding of nature, ecology, conservation and sustainable management ap- proach. T he entir e field of religious environmentalism revolves around t he supposition and discovery tha t “the environmental crisis is fundamentally a crisis of values and that religions, being a primary source of values in any culture, are thus impli- cated in any decisions regarding the environment (NASR, 1997). Religious Frameworks—African Traditional Religion-Values That Come from the Need to Sa ve Mother Earth Omeregbe (pp. 297-304), in his epochal work, “A philo- sophical look at religion”, poses the fundamental question: “what is the value of religion”. I believe t hat we are not here, at this Conference, to question the value of religion to man—we have established that it has a positive role to play in the society, especially in man’s sustainable management of his environment. Nevertheless, Omeregbe (p. 303) went further to identify areas where religion contributes positively to the enhancement of societal good and development: @ Religion and peace-religions contribute to peace except where religions is gripped by the “totally unjustified claim by each religion that it is the only true religion sanctioned or re- vealed by God—that all others are false..this kind of claim is simply the product of ignorance, a symptom of narrow min- dedness, fanaticism, bigotism and ignorance... it is to be noted that African traditional religion was never contaminated with this contagion by which many other religions were infected since it has ne ver cl a ime d to be the on ly true religion favored or approved by God for all mankind. @ Religion and morality-its highest value and its highest achievement is that of promoting moral ity in society. In this aspect, religion gives rise to the generation of positive human and humane values and attitudes that help man in his relation- ships; in managing his environment in a positive a manner to achieve a balanced attitude towards his environment. Contextually, in his own seminal work, “Man and his reli- gion in a contemporary soc iety ” Professor Tagbo Ugwu (2002: pp. 59-64) opines that “it is generally believed that religion aims at establishing and sustaining unbiased horizontal (ma n/ God) and vertical (man/man) relationships. Religion therefore has some positive roles to play in any society ”. Professor Ugwu identified some of t he s e roles which could be leveraged upon to achieve environmental sustainability in Africa. From his posi- tion we could identify these roles as: @ Positive roles aimed at fostering progress-religion as a dimension of human nature stands to inje ct fundamental and ultimate meaning and explanation into human existence and life. @ Role of enlightenment, education and complacency-reli- gion through its exhortation and program measure of actions helps to wipe out mass illiteracy from the face of the society . Most of the problems pestering us arise from ignorance such as environmental blindness and filthy surroundings etc; @ Cleansing and purification of the environment; @ Channel of promotion and development; @ The conscience of culture-reviewing harmful cultural pra c - tices and consolidating on the refi ned one s. We could add to this template by further observing that r eli - gions c ou l d also act as the conscientious thermometer in for- mulating sustainable environmental poli cy by governments in Africa. Broadly speaking, religion has been seen variously by different scholars as the be st friend of environmental sustaina- ble promotion and management. Miroslav (2000: pp. 1-21), in his work “Man and Nature in World Religions”, discusses t he origin of the relationship between man and his natural envi- ronment in world religions such as in the origins of the world in Hinduism, Buddhism, Hebraism, Christianity, and Islam. In Christianity, it felt that with the first man ’s sin the balance of the relation between man and nature was disrupted. Acting irresponsibly may further lea d to the destruction of the world and life itself. Many religions offer integral and sustainable solutions for overcoming the ecological (environmental) crisis. Hinduism especially emphasizes the way of love, and peaceful attitudinal change wit h moral activity (effects). Buddhism sug- gests that, in order to accomplish unity & harmony in nat ur e , man must overcome his egoism and his selfish desperation to exploit and make profit out of nature. The Hebrew Old-Testa- ment tradition brings to consciousness the concepts of subju- gate, which implies that to cultivate & nurture the ear th will lead to mutual happiness & contentment. Islam holds man re- sponsible for the fate of Allah’s creatures. Though Mislovav gives no spac e for African traditional religion, its position we already know as pro-sustainable and unselfish management of the earth’s resources contained in the environment. The differ- ent religions however, have different attitudes and frameworks toward nature and, hence different environmental philosophies. Evidence of this finding and its data stability continue to shift and be debated by scholars. We shall examine them now. Robin Attfield (1983: pp. 369-386) in his ‘Christian Attitudes to na- ture points to the nature of this debate in his observation: The conclusions of Ly nn White, Jr., John Passmore, and William Coleman, who various ly represent Judaeo-Christian attitudes to nature as despotic, anthropocentric and exploitative, are contested; just as frequently Christians ha ve regarded hu- man beings as stewards of creati on , responsible for its care. A survey of t he biblical, patristic, medieval and early modern periods suggests t hat evidence for gentle atti tude s has bee n underplayed. Extra resources supporting an enlightened ethi c thus become available. Clinton Bail ey (1982: pp. 65-88), gives an insight into the re- ligious practices of the Bedouin in Sinai and the Negev and presents some of these practices, indicate s their relatedness to the natural environment of Bedouins past and present accord- ing to him: The Bedouins’ extreme exposure to the desert’s harsh envi- ronment and their scant recourse to hel p in the event of adver- sity ha ve made the ir que st for the means to attenuate their fears particularly strong. This qu e s t has led them to adhere to prac- tices that give them the sense of exercising a degree of control over t he recurrent afflictions of nature. Among these practices are fatalism, att empts to propitiate Allah, the concept of agents of evil, the c reat ion of taboos, and belief in the power of ma gic. Chris Ballard (2000: pp. 205-225) in his book, “The Fire Next Time: T he Conversion of the Huli Apocalypse”, examines
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access the impact of Christian notions of the Apocalypse on the Huli speakers of t he Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea dur- ing the 1950s. Precontact Huli cosmology pos ited a moral con- stitution for t he fertility of the universe in which the health of people & t he land reflected the state of moral order in Huli society. Failure in social beha vi or , which could be gauged from the declining condition of the “skin” of the land, was attributed to an inexorable process of loss of the knowledge of customary lore. Human agency, however, was accorded a significant role in redressing this universal tende ncy to entropy, & ritual leaders claimed the ability to reduce an apocalyptic, earth-renewing fall of fe r tile soil from the sky. The adoption of Christian under- standings of the Apocalypse as the revel a tion of divine will , & the abandonment of most of the precontact rituals, have ha d significant consequences for Huli conceptions of the role of human agency in history, & for the nature of their engagement with the land. Engagement with the land has been extended by some religious environmentalists such as Jon P. Bloch (1998: pp. 55-73) who, in his “Alternative Spirituality and Environ- mentalism” exposes the relationship between religiosity and with the following summary : The relations between environmentalism and religiousity have previously been examined by studying conservative vs liberal Christian affiliation. Explored here are environmentalist attitudes among persons whose religiosity does not fit conven- tional patterns, i.e., the so-called “alternative” or “countercul- ture” spiritual community (e.g., New Age, Neo-Paganism). This network of individuals finds com mona l ty & solidarity not through organizational ties or a singular theology, but through an overriding ideology that challenges the alleged rigidity & dualistic dogma of mainstream society, & so suggests a new form of social movement. Central to this critique of the main- stream is the notion t ha t the Earth is just as sacred as the hea- vens, so by preserving the planet, one is being “spiritual”. A discussion of the characteristics of bot h divine & human love for nature, relating traditional theological questions about love to Christian ecotheology was kicked further by Susa n P. Bratton (1992: pp. 3-25) wherein she observes in her work ‘Loving Nature: Eros or Agape? The basic types of love used by man towards nature and the environment: Two types of Christian love are analyzed : eros & agape. It is argued that, becaus e agape is self-giving, it is preferable to eros in relationships with the environment. Further, it is spontaneous & unmotivated, creative, & indifferent to value, encourages fellowship between God & creation, recognizes individuality & freedom in nature, & produces action & suffering. This love should recognize the possibility of reciprocal interaction with nature, appr ec iate gifts of t he natural world to humankind, & simultaneously consider the needs of both human & nonhuman neighbors. Continued philosophical & theological discussion of the role of reciprocity & sacrifice in love for nature is sug- gested. As part of a growing environmental movement in Thailand, a small number of Buddhist monks engage in ecological conser- vation projects, teaching ecologically sound practices among Thai farmers & criticizing rapid economic development na- tionwide (which they se e as one of the primary causes of the country’s environmental crisis) This religious movement to- wards environmental sustainability was captured by Susan M. Darlington (1998: pp. 1-15) in her book “The Ordination of a Tree: The Buddhist Ecology Movement in Thailand ”. Paul Dekker (1997: pp. 443-458) in “Religion, Culture and Environmental Concern: An Empirical Cross-National Analysis” presents a comparison of 1993 International Social Survey Pro- ject data from 20 countries evaluating the environmental con- sequences of Christian religious beliefs, belonging to the Chris- tian community , & post-materiali st values. He seeks to link the biblical attitude of human dominance over nature hel d by the Judeo-Christian heritage with the responsibility for the current ecological crisis. He calls for a new model of environmental ethics with society’s search for postmodern environmental val- ues and principles calling for an intergenerational val ues shift to make this happen. From a call for a new environmental eth- ics drawn from religion, we come to the level of the responsi- bility for stewardship given to man. In “Environmental Ste- wardship: Our Spiritual Heritage for Sustainable Development”, P. Dwivedi (1996: pp. 217-231), examines the concept of envi- ronmental stewardship, balancing concerns for environmental well-being a ga i ns t t he pursuit of economic & industrial devel- opment. Arguing that protecting the environment is an interest inherent to all world cultures & spiritual traditions, it is sug- gested that the standards of sustainable development advocated by almost all the religions we have examined so far inclusive of African traditional religion. The ide a of stewardship revolves around the i de a of “Vasudhaiv-kutumbakam” (viewing human beings & all life on earth as belonging to one’s extended f ami ly ) is advocated as a way of promoting an ecologic al ly responsible approach to global change. It is argued that only through a uni- versal charter of environmental stewardship can environmen- talism be linked to long-term development (Dwivedi: p. 231). Thus we can see that the religions of the world have been con- cerned with ecology and the environment to var y i ng extents, as can be seen by a brief overview of some of the basic attitudes of ma jor religions toward t he natural world, starting with the Greeks, indigenous African communities and other world faiths. An extrapolation of their religious philosophy and values reveal a concern to preserve and sustain nature and the environment in a manner to safeguard her resources for future generations. Thus we can see that religion could be “a maj or influence in the lives of people living in rural environments. This is examined in relation to the changing functions of the rural fami ly ” (W. B. Rogers & G. E. Buckmire, 1967: p. 22). Religions and Conservation In September 1986 the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF, 2012) celebrated its 25th anniversary by bringing together au- thorities from five maj or wor l d religions to declare how the teachings of their faith leads each of them to car e for nature. The event was instigated by WWF International President HRH Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh, and took place ov e r two days in the It alia n town of Assisi, chosen for its association with St Francis of Assisi the Catholic saint of ecology. Wha t resulted from this unprecedented project we re the Assisi Dec- larations: separate calls from Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jew- ish and Islamic leaders to their own faithful concerning their spiritual relationship with nature and sacred duty to care for it (WWF, 2012. Aft er the Assisi event WWF continued to work with religious advisors to support the faiths in developing a wide variety of conservation projects through what was known as the Network of Religions and Conservation (WWF, 2012). By 1995 four more faiths—Baha’i, Daoism, Jainism and Sikh- ism—had produced declarations to accompany the original five and, with representatives of all nine religions, Prince Philip
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access launched the Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC), an independent NGO based in the UK and committed to linking the faith worlds of the ma jor religions with the more secular worlds of conservation and ecology in the caus e of conserva- tion and sustainability (Green climate cities, 2012). It could be seen increasingly that there is a dialectic a l beneficial link be- tween the religious mind of man and his belief in the religious values of his faith, no matter the differences from extremist faiths. The philosophy and psychology of man’s religion lies in the power of fa it h and human values to achieve human trans- formation in his attitudes, character and behavior. In other words, one c ou ld entitle this presentation “The power of reli- gious psychology and philosophy to transform the present mind of the African personality towards achieving a sustainable management of his environment”. Mankind has achieved a synergy of spirit and research towards the end of this intellec- tual appreciation and social application. It has been proven from above that religions have a global reach with psychological, social, cultural and political influence in driving the message that conservation of the natural world was a fundamental el e ment and principle of faith. This element could be applied in enhancing the sustainable tremendous po- tential for the future of the environment and reversing the damages done by man on his environment. In 2011 the ARC network celebrated 25 yea rs since the original Declarations with another conference in Assisi celebrating the thousands of faith-based projects and long-term plans for sustainability that the network ha s supported ove r t he years. The event also launched the Green Pilgrimage Network, in recognition of the environmental impact caused by the estimated 150 million spi- ritual journeys undertaken by faith followers every year (May 23, 2012). Starting with 12 sites representing different faith traditions in Asia, Africa and Europe the commitment is to develop attitudes, resources and practices to minimize negative environmental impact and even, if possible, harness the efforts of pilgrims to generate a positive impact instead (Wikipaedia, 2013). Philosophical Framework The philosophical framework captures t he best human values that undergird and underpin environmental philosophy and its sustainable framework. It draws its parallel from a cosmologi- cal and ontological deification and respect for nature that sees good in the tempera te usage of nature’s prime resources to serve not only the present but al so the future. It is a peaceful application of religious values of truth, peace, righteousness, nonviolence and love (The five values of the S at hya Sai educa- tion in human values) in the management of t he environment. It is a religious model of behavi or and attitude that draws from the nodality of ma n being at peace with his creator and nature. The hypothetical tinge is that the present environmental degra- dation results from ma n being out of tune with God and nature. Man, it says can only draw back from the precipice only when he starts to love and respect nature and the earth. In his “Gandhi, Deep Ecology, Peace Research and Buddhist Economics” Tho- mas Weber (1999: pp. 349-361) agrees and gives more insight into this philosophical perspective that enjoys t he core values of true African religios ity : The central importance of Mohandas Gandhi to nonviolent activism in the environmental protection campaign is widely acknowledged. There are also other significant peace-related bodies of knowledge t ha t have gained such popularity in the West in the r elat ive ly recent past that they have changed the directions of thought & have been important in encouraging social movements, yet they have not been analyze d in terms of antecedents, especially Gandhi an ones. The new environmen- talism in the form of deep ecology, the discipline of peace re- search, & what has become known as “Buddhist economics” very cl os ely mirror Gandhi’s philosophy. Educational Framework-SSEHV / Curriculum-Nursery/Tertiary School System What is education in human values, EHV? The education in human values framework for environmental sustainable man- agement is a direct derivative of religious intervention and eth- ical mediation in solving one the problems confronting the global educational sy stem-i mba lanc e between secular as against spiritual education. The savant and avatar, Bhagawan Sathya Sai Baba evolved this foremost educational syst em in human values considered by the international education committee as the crown jewel of education system s . Man tod ay has witnessed the radical transformation of his physic al environment by sci- ence and technology; this has given him the powe r to control, modify or destroy his natural forces. In Africa we are conse- quently allowed the alternatives of either regressing to a primi- tive level of environmental destruction through an undiscip- lined use of technology, or adapting the same technology to achieve the peaceful of environmental resources. To achieve the goal of the MDGS and that of sustainability in environmen- tal management, we have to recreate the African society socie- ties and their values. The interdependence of the major ele- ments of t he African ecosystem and environment, linked to our Africa’s sustainable growth, poverty reduction and wealth crea- tion at the religious, philosophical, educational, social, tech- nological, economic and political levels—dictates that we have to start a new character formation and reformation at the per- sonal and collective levels of action towards environmental management. For as agreed to by a Bahai Faith environmental assessment this human va lue character reformation has become inevitable if we are to achieve environmental sustainability: We are beginning to see that integration of life on the planet requires unified action on a scale we have not yet achieved. Partial solutions seem only to prolong the difficulties; yet we hesitate to adopt a ne w and workable system of values for the world. For until there is unity at the most fundamental level— that of human values—social problems, simple or complex, will remain unresolved. The United Nations, Regional and National Frameworks The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), is the United Nations flagship organ which has be en bestowed the challenge of meeting up with the target of the 7th goal of the MDGS—to integrate the principles of environmental sustaina- ble management globally before 2015. This give s UNEP the charge of global environmental governance and ecosys tem management. Klaus Töpfer, the United Nations Under-Secre- tary General and Executive Director, United Nations Environ- ment Programme (UNEP), launched an action program in a booklet—Africa Environment Tracking: Issues and develop- ments—which was intended as a key resource for policy mak-
A. C. K. CHUKWUNONYELUM ET AL. Open Access ers in Africa to drive the frameworks for the region and nation- al governments With its Early Warning and Assessment (DE- WA) framework, t here is no doubt that it has become a subs- tantive tool for African policymakers to use in the assessment of the pressing environmental issues facing the region. Two of the policy options highlighted in the first African environmen- tal outlook report we re the need for the African Union, as a regional body, to persuade the international community to adopt the New Partnership for Afric a ’s Development (NEPAD) and to improve environmental information systems as a basis for sound decision-making. Both policy recommendations ha ve since been implemented. NEPAD has been endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly and UNEP. The issue of environmental information systems is being addressed through the Africa Environment Information Network (AEIN), a sus- tainable framework that has served the two objectives of achi- eving regional and national environment review while making it possible to track environmental developments on a regular basis and to try and establish trends. It is through such tracking and determining trends that reliable information can be pro- vided to policymakers for s tr ategi c decision-making (UNEP, 2006). We have earlie r identified ignorance of current devel- opments in sustainable management of t he environment as one of the chal le nges facing the African in his environmental crisis. This global and regional framework will give vita l information about ongoing threats to Africa’s environmental crisis. Private S e ctor Frameworks Through the increasing recognition of the role of the private sector to carry out its partnership responsibilities in achieving environmental justice and sustainabi lity , it has re adi ly become obvious that through corporate social responsibility more hu- man value based behavior are being evolved in managing envi- ronmental challenges in their operating environments. This is a deduction from the more religious and philosophical attitudes of their operational personnel and a new environmental philos- ophy that endorses a new personnel attitudes towards the envi- ronment of opera tion. Indig eno us Co mmun ity /Women Led Frameworks In this context, it recognizes t hat “culture-people + civiliza - tion + knowledge” controls and directs how people manage their environment. The religious dimension to the culture of African people constitutes a philosophical and psychological aspects of the intangible management of their environmental heritage as recognized also by UNESCO (200 UNESCO Con- vention). Indigenous Traditional Knowledge sy stems emanates from the Afric an traditional religion of the African indigenous peoples, as earlier recognized by this presentation. The ATR contains human values that could underpin and drive the sus- tainable management of its environmental frameworks. How- ever, despite this knowledge system being excluded in the cur- rent efforts to achieve sustainable environmental systems, it has been observed that the biggest challenges facing the present environmental crisis in Africa is the marginalization of indi- genous communities, and the exclusion of women and girls in the efforts to overcome the crisis (Bahai, 2012). This means that there is an environmental gender and indigenous discrimi- nation tha t excludes both wom en and indigenous com muni ty interests in such efforts. This issue of marginalization, espe- cially of wome n, ha s also been well note d in a Bahai environ- mental management documentation (2011): One of the most pervasive social challenges besetting com- munities around the world is the marginalization of girls and women—a condition further exacerbated… the y represent pe r - haps the greatest source of untapped potential in the global effort to overcome climate change. Their responsibilities in families, in communities, as farmers and stewards of natural resources make them uniquely positioned to develop strategies for adapting to changing environmental conditions… Recommendations 1) Psychological: Attitudinal/character. In the context of African traditional religion, Asian Buddha peaceful manage- ment of nature, Schmitt (2011) has observed that the antidote to man’s endemic wrong behavior towards nature and his envi- ronment, which could be termed by psychology as an irreli- gious behavior or by ATR as an “Nso Ani”. The sustainable solution cou l d be enmeshed in the observation made by Schmitt as an attitudinal change in the human person: But the most effective weapon against environmental injus- tice as well as misguided developments is still to maintain within oneself, a respectful basic attitude that is Furthering to nature and man, and which rejects any form of exploitation because such thoughts and attitudes have a strong effect on all those who likewise want to be constructive. 2) Religious input into environmental policy; 3) Integrating environmentalism as basic curriculum in ter- tiary religious education; 4) Imparting human value education and sensitivity to sec- ondary and primary school students; 5) Formation of religious friends of t he environment in high- er institutions; Other recommendations would include: 6) Religious organizations partnering with NGOS/CBOS for environmental protection; 7) Organizing an annual environmental religious summits by inter religious council in Africa; 8) Promoting Sustainable Use of Natural Resources; 9) Protecting Forest Resources; 10) Establishing partnerships between educational facultie s with the Afric an institute for Sat hya Sai education in human values; 11) Conserving Biodiversity; 12) Protecting the Environment While Helping Communities relive their traditional worship system; 13) Spreading the application of famine early warning sys- tems (FEWS) across the length and breadth of Africa (FE WS- 2011). Conclusion Challenged by Lynn White’s sharp criticism of Christianity’s responsibility for earth’s ecological crisis, both Ia n Barbour a nd Philip Hefner have proposed theological anthropologies based upon the imago Dei that supports an ecological ethic that de- fines the application and useage of the 5 human values as the model for sustainable religious environmentalism in globally. Russell (2003: pp. 149-159), while supporting the ecological ethic, turns not to human value/religious dimension of ecology which I consider to be indispensable to any considerations to
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