Journal of Environmental Protection, 2013, 4, 27-39
Published Online November 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep)
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.411A2004
Open Access JEP
27
Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem
City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution
Amjad Aliewi1*, Najwan Imseih2, Deeb Abdulghafour3
1House of Water and Environment, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; 2House of Water and Environment, Ramallah,
Palestine; 3Palestinian Water Authority, Ramallah, Palestine.
Received August 7th, 2013; revised September 6th, 2013; accepted October 5th, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Amjad Aliewi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
Domestic sewage, solid waste, industrial activities, and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides are the main sources
of pollution that threaten the main groundwater aquifers of Tulkarem City of Palestine which add to the problem of wa-
ter scarcity already experienced by the Palestinians in the West Bank. These aquifers are a vital groundwater resource
that provides high quality water. This paper presents the findings of the “Pro Aquifer” project funded by the EU, which
aims to reduce groundwater polluting activities in the main municipalities such as Tulkarem. The scientific research of
this paper was conducted on the potential and existing sources of groundwater pollution that threaten the Aquifer. GIS
tools as well as vulnerability, hazard and risk mapping and pollution modeling were used to examine the impacts of
pollution to the groundwater resources in the study area. The local-scale pollution transport model was developed to
define the general characteristics of the groundwater flow system as well as to consequently assess the future transport
trends of pollution in the groundwater water system of the Tulkarem area. The outputs of this scientific research were
used to establish policies and guidelines for reducing water and environmental pollution in Palestinian municipalities.
The recommendations produced aim to help Palestinian municipalities prevent pollution of the critical trans-boundary
groundwater resources that underlie Tulkarem City. These guidelines provide a methodology to help municipalities be-
gin solving the environmental issues they face. The goals of these guidelines are to protect and prevent further deterio-
ration of the resources of the Mountain Aquifer and to enable and empower municipal officials and staff to achieve
these goals.
Keywords: Groundwater Pollution; Environmental Protection; Vulnerability Mapping; Groundwater Modelling; Policy
Guidelines
1. Introduction
The shared groundwater systems of the mountain aquifer
are one of the most significant water resources for the
residents of the project area. Population growth and eco-
nomic development, combined with natural water scar-
city in the region, have led to significant stresses on these
water resources. One of the primary factors that threaten
the sustainability of groundwater in the region is pollu-
tion from above-ground sources, including domestic
sewage, solid waste, industrial activities, and agricultural
practices.
The main water resources for Palestinians are currently
under threat of pollution. The Mountain Aquifer in the
study area has been subject to pollution, leading to clo-
sure of some wells. Unsustainable management practices
have acutely worsened the water situation. Pollution by
industrial activities sewage has rendered the water of
some natural springs in the West Bank undrinkable, and
results from monitoring in recent years indicate clearly
that pollution has already intruded groundwater in deep
wells as well [1]. The future of the already scarce water
resources of the Palestinians is thus under severe threat.
The majority of polluting activities is in the hands of
local municipalities or under their control.
The groundwater environment in the study area may
be polluted by a number of contaminants but raw sewage
is the most serious one.
To address the protection of Palestinian groundwater
resources from pollution, in the context from the unique
perspective of local municipalities, Friends of the Earth
*Corresponding author.

Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 28
Middle East (FoEME), together with the House of Water
and Environment (HWE), with support from Green Cross
France and the EU, have conducted a project called “Pro-
tecting trans-boundary groundwater sources from pollu-
tion (“Pro-Aquifer”) since January 2007 [2]. The Pro
Aquifer project aims to help municipalities identify pol-
luting activities in their boundaries, as well as develop
policy mechanisms and techniques on preventing
groundwater pollution. Figure 1 provides a schematic
overview of the main components and outputs of the Pro
Aquifer project. This paper is a result of the “scientific
research” and “development of guidelines” phases of this
project. The paper focuses on the scientific research
component of the project and presents the findings of the
research along with the main recommendations for
groundwater protection guidelines for the Palestinian
case study of Tulkarm City.
2. Research Methodology
2.1. General
The research methodology developed in this paper con-
sists of several stages (Figure 2). As described in the
figure, selection of the case study was based on a group
of indicators, suggested by environment experts in the
region. Upon selecting Tulkarm as the Palestinian case
study, an intensive field and desk research was carried
out for the collection of all required data (including geo-
graphical & statistical data, pollution sources, etc.). The
data were collected from field surveys and from several
sources of data such as [3-6]. A GIS database was de-
signed to organize this large amount of data, to analyze it,
and to present it in the form of aesthetically pleasing
maps. The solute transport model and vulnerability &
hazard mapping were actually carried out in parallel. In
Figure 1. Schematic overview of the pro aquifer project.
Figure 2. Research methodology of this paper.
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 29
the solute transport model, the model simulations were
run for chloride as a conservative contaminant from
wastewater wadi flow of Wadi Zeimar, a main sewage
wadi running in Tulkarm. The vulnerability mapping will
show the groundwater vulnerability in the study area, the
hazard maps will show the location and intensity of haz-
ards over the same area. A groundwater risk assessment
will then be carried out to indicate the areas of highest
groundwater risk.
2.2. Selection of Case Study
The first stage was the selection of a case study munici-
pality for the research and the field work. The Palestinian
municipality of Tulkarm was chosen. The selection was
primarily based on the selection criteria proposed by the
research team. These criteria included:
 Origin and type of pollution source;
 Hydro-geological sensitivity—degree of sensitivity of
the aquifer to pollution from a certain locale/pollution
source;
 Severity of pollution and risk of potential harm to
aquifer;
 Potential ecological effects;
 Availability of data within municipality;
 Applicability of the policy model to other municipali-
ties;
 Willingness of municipality to cooperate on project;
 Population trends.
Upon selecting the case study for this research (Tul-
karem Municipality), the authors carried out a compre-
hensive literature review about the study area. The re-
view included information obtained from technical &
scientific reports, government documents, and meetings
with Tulkarm engineers and staff.
2.3. Background of Tulkarm Study Area
Tulkarm area (Figure 3 presents a location map) falls on
the north-western strip (recharge area) of the Mountain
Aquifer of the West Bank. This aquifer is presently the
main source of drinking water for Palestinians in the
West Bank. The recharge area is particularly vulnerable
to pollution from sewage, solid waste, agricultural & in-
dustrial pollution and other types of pollutants. The sen-
sitivity is also attributed to the fact that the area of Tul-
karm is also a location for groundwater utilization.
Sewage flow in the recharge area of the Mountain Aq-
uifer leads directly to pollution of groundwater. More-
over, groundwater in that area is closer to the surface,
requiring a shorter period of time for pollutants to perco-
late and reach it. Some of the most abundant water ex-
tractions from the Mountain Aquifer are located in that
area. Alarmingly, it is also the location of some of the
most serious pollution spots (Figure 4).
The geological formations of the Tulkarm governorate
range in age from Upper Cretaceous to Quaternary. The
district is mainly covered by sedimentary carbonate rocks
such as limestone, dolomite, marl and chalk. The general
geology of the Tulkarm area is represented in Figure 5.
The Upper Cenomanian formation (also known as the
Bethlehem formation) consists of limestone, dolomite
with chalk, and marl. The Turonian formation (also
known as the Jerusalem formation) consists of a series of
Figure 3. Location map of Tulkarm City (the study area).
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 30
Figure 4. Map of pollution sources in Tulkarm City.
Figure 5. Outcropping formations in Tulkarm City.
massive, thick-to-thin bedded limestone to dolomitic
limestone and dolomites with a thickness of approxi-
mately 70 - 130 m. The Turonian formation has a
well-developed karst feature and is commonly used as a
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 31
building stone. The Senonian formation is mainly made
up of Cretaceous Rocks, which are composed of chalk.
The chalk is thin and consists of marly base and passes
upwards through bedded and crystalline limestone that
has few marl partings. The Eocene formation is mainly
composed of chalk and limestone. The presence of the
limestone and the conglomerate lenses form a good aq-
uifer while the chalk and marl act as a good aquiclude.
Quaternary rocks are divided into 1) Lisan Formation:
these recent sediments are mainly composed of alluvium
consisting of limestone, chert and clay; and 2) Nari For-
mation: it occurs mainly in high rainfall areas where
carbonate rocks are dissolved by percolating water [7,8].
2.4. Infrastructure
Parts of the sewage collection network in Tulkarm city
have been constructed since the rule of the Ottoman
empire in the 1890’s, are still in use to this day. Some
areas of the city center are still served by clay channels
which are still intact but suffer from cracks which cause
leakage of wastewater to the ground. Wastewater gen-
erated by households is either transported by sewers to a
central facility for sedimentation, pre-treatment and dis-
posal or wastewater is disposed of on-site by the use of
cesspits. Wastewater collection services (sewage net-
works) are available to about 75% of the localities within
the Tulkarm municipality borders and refugee camps.
The remaining 25% are served with cesspits (as shown in
Figure 4), the contents of which are pumped by tanker
trucks, transported and dumped into wadi Zeimar and
open areas, accompanied by large amounts of harmful
bacteria, viruses and undesired microorganisms.
2.5. GIS Database Design
In addition to the desk study, the research team con-
ducted a field survey to collect real data about the poten-
tial pollution sources in Tulkarm. Using geographic posi-
tioning system (GPS) devices and aerial photo maps, the
team mapped the location of every pollution source in the
city and produced GIS maps with a related database.
Pollutants that were inventoried included: omestic waste-
water, industrial wastewater from light and heavy Indus-
tries, solid waste, agricultural activities, organic waste,
and other pollution from various human activities. Fig-
ure 4 shows a map of all pollution sources inventoried in
Tulkarm City.
After producing the GIS database and GIS maps, an
analysis of the impact of various pollution sources on the
groundwater was carried out using the following tools:
groundwater vulnerability assessment and mapping, haz-
ard assessment and mapping, and risk assessment and
mapping.
3. Groundwater Vulnerability, Hazard and
Risk Mapping
Since aquifers in the Tulkarm area are karst aquifers,
which are well known for their particular vulnerability to
contamination arising from their special hydraulic cha-
racteristics, the Protection-Infiltration (PI) method [9] for
vulnerability assessment was adopted. The PI method
was specifically developed as a conceptual framework
for mapping the vulnerability of karstic aquifers.
The PI Method is a GIS-based approach to mapping
intrinsic groundwater vulnerability with special consid-
eration of karst aquifers. This method has established a
system for the mapping of intrinsic vulnerability of karst
groundwater and for the characterization of the vulner-
ability of groundwater to specific contaminants or groups
of contaminants. Finally, complete content and organiza-
tional editing before formatting. Please take note of the
following items when proofreading spelling and gram-
mar.
3.1. Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment
The PI factor, calculated within the PI-method (Figure 6),
consists of the P-factor and the I-factor. The P-factor
indicates the effectiveness of the protective cover and
considers the soil field capacity, subsoil type, lithology
type and fracturing, aquifer type and recharge conditions.
The I-factor, which indicates the degree to which the
protective cover is bypassed by lateral, surface and sub-
surface flow, considers the infiltration conditions and
accordingly the flow concentration of the surface water.
The final protection factor PI () is the product of P and I.
It is subdivided into five classes. A protective factor of 
 1 indicates a very low degree of protection and an ex-
treme vulnerability to contamination;  = 5 indicates a
high degree of protection and a very low vulnerability.
Figure 6. Simplified flow chart for the PI method.
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The spatial distribution of the -factor is shown on the
vulnerability map (Figure 7). A complete description of
the procedure adopted, using the PI method is provided
in [9].
The vulnerability map of Tulkarm (Figure 7) shows
clearly that the majority of the study area is classified as
moderate-high-extreme vulnerable to pollution. This
means that any source of pollution, if disposed on these
areas (red-brownish-yellow areas), then the contaminant
will arrive at the groundwater system with a considerable
strength and with a relatively shorter travel time. As a
result, this will pose a serious risk to the groundwater
aquifers.
3.2. Hazard Assessment and Mapping
An “environmental hazard” is formally defined as “an
event, or continuing process, which if realized, will lead
to circumstances having the potential to degrade, directly
or indirectly, the quality of the environment”. A hazard
presents a risk when it is likely to affect something of
value. Hazard Mapping is the preparation of hazard maps
based on the Calculation of the Hazard Index (HI)—The
hazard index describes the degree of harmfulness of each
hazard. For its calculation the formula is:
 
f
HIHQnR (1)
where: HI is the hazard index, H is the weighting value
of each hazard—which describes the harmfulness of the
hazard to the groundwater; Qn is the ranking factor (0.8
to 1.2), which considers the range of possible technical
specifications of each hazard type; and Rf the reduction
factor which considers the probability for a contamina-
tion event to occur. The hazard map for Tulkarm is pre-
sented in Figure 8.
The classified hazard map of Tulkarm city shows that
the Israeli industrial zone is a high hazard and that the
Palestinian industrial zone is a moderate hazard, and that
can be understood by the type of industries on the Israeli
side and the Palestinian side.
3.3. Risk Assessment and Mapping
The term “Risk” is used to describe the probability of
suffering harm from a hazard. With regard to groundwa-
ter, it refers to the possible contamination as a result from
a hazardous event. Risk maps show the risk of ground-
water pollution of each hazard in relation to resource
protection. The risk index is the probability that con-
taminants with a certain amount and concentration (in-
tensity index) reach the surface of the groundwater. The
groundwater and the aquifer characteristics are not in-
cluded in this type of risk assessment. The risk intensity
values are determined with an Equation (2):

RII1 HI (2)
RII = risk intensity index
HI = Hazard Index
Figure 7. Vulnerability map of Tulkarm City.

Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 33
Figure 8. Classified hazard map of Tulkarm City.
 = PI-factor (index for intrinsic vulnerability)
The proposed risk assessment is categorized by taking
into account the classes of the vulnerability and the haz-
ard index. This approach of risk assessment implies that
hazards even with a low or very low hazard level could
produce a “Very High” risk level if the vulnerability is
very high. In comparison a hazard with a very high haz-
ard level would produce only a “Moderate” or “High”
risk level if the vulnerability is less than very high. Pro-
duction of the hazard map is presented in Figure 9.
4. Groundwater Flow and Contaminants
Transport Model for Tulkarm
The Western Aquifer Basin, which is a component of the
Mountain Aquifer, is considered the most important ba-
sin that provides reasonable quantities of fresh water for
Palestinians, and therefore, should be managed and pro-
tected from any potential adverse impacts that cause
degradation in its water quality. One of these adverse
impacts is pollution transport from the untreated waste-
water of Wadi Zeimar, which flows from Nablus City to
the Tulkarm area (as shown in Figure 3), passing over
more than 20 km. The average annual flow of this sew-
age wadi is estimated in the study area to be around 1.86
MCM/yr. There are big concerns regarding groundwater
pollution from the untreated sewage water in this wadi by
infiltration and percolation mechanisms. These concerns
are the main reasons for developing a local-scale ground-
water flow and pollution transport model for the Tulkarm
area. Additionally, measurements for nitrate levels in the
abandoned production well of “Anabta”, which is located
near Wadi Zeimar, have shown that nitrate levels in the
groundwater in that well-exceed the WHO maximum
limits for nitrate in drinking water1. This gives all the
more reason to conduct a pollution transport for Wadi
Zeimar.
The local-scale model was developed based on the re-
gional flow model of the Western Aquifer Basin. The
primary modeling objective of this model is to define,
with as much accuracy and reliability as possible, the
general characteristics of the groundwater flow system as
well as to consequently assess the future transport trends
of pollution in the groundwater water system of the Tul-
karm area through developing a local-scale pollution
transport model. Therefore, the model can act as a man-
agement tool to support the implementation of the nec-
essary measures to protect and remediate the aquifer sys-
tems from any source of pollution, and determine the
potential areas that might suffer from water quality prob-
lems.
The MODFLOW software was developed for hetero-
genous porous granular media, but certain features were
managed in a way which takes into consideration the
karstic nature of the study area. For example, in the cal-
ulation for transmissivity (T), the fact that T varies c
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Figure 9. Hazard, vulnerability and risk maps for Tulkarm Municipality.
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 35
widely from one section to another in karstic media was
taken into consideration during the model calibration.
4.1. The Groundwater Flow Model
The model boundaries and domain were adapted based
on the structural modified cross-sections of the study
area, which show the lateral extent and outcropping of
geologic formations, and groundwater flow direction. For
this purpose, all available cross-sections, geological maps,
and structural maps for the entire area were used to de-
fine the study area boundaries.
The conceptual model was created and translated into
a numerical model automatically with the help of GMS
module (MODFLOW), which will start running the
model. The local-scale model domain was constructed
based on the regional-scale model of the Western Aqui-
fer Basin conducted by [10-13]. The grid is represented
by 108 rows and 91 columns (9828 cells). The smallest
cells in the grid are 10 m by 10 m and the largest cells
are 1000 m by 1000 m.
Layer data for the local-scale model, including aquifer
hydraulic properties, were imported and interpolated
from the regional model, and were subsequently adjusted
and refined during calibration. At the end of the calibra-
tion process, the simulated hydraulic conductivity was
characterized by low-range values from 10 to about 25
m/day. The simulated water table shows that 2 observa-
tion wells are less than 2 meters of difference. The simu-
lated water budget of the aquifer system was analyzed to
determine if the indicated sources and sinks of water
were consistent with the conceptual hydrogeologic mo-
del.
4.2. The Pollution Transport Model
Once the flow model is calibrated against steady state
condition, it can be used for contaminant simulation.
This stage is considered the most important part since it
simulates the transport behavior of pollutants within the
aquifer system. The pollution model was launched auto-
matically after steady-state simulation with the help of
GMS module (MT3D). Flow and transport are better
understood in the saturated zone than in the unsaturated
zone, so transport in the saturated zone is modeled and
assumed to be represented by single porosity media. The
model simulations are run for chloride as a conservative
contaminant from wastewater wadi flow of Zeimar. The
pollution model is run for 6000 days to represent the spa-
tial distribution of chloride plume within the aquifer sys-
tem. Wadi Zeimar is the main source of pollution in the
Tulkarm area. It provides an outlet for all the discharges
of Nablus City, and passes more than 23 km to the west-
ern side of Tulkarm. This study will assess the impact of
the untreated wastewater of Wadi Zeimer on the ground-
water system of the Tulkarm area. The main parameter
that is tested during the pollution model is the chloride,
with concentration of 3019 ppm in the untreated waste-
water of Wadi Zeimar. The aquifer properties that control
the movement and distribution of pollutants through
groundwater are hydraulic properties which control the
flow field and additional properties affecting the advec-
tive and dispersive movement of pollutants transport are
porosity and dispersivity (in the transverse and longitu-
dinal directions relative to flow).
4.3. Model Simulations
The results of pollution model indicate a general trend
and distribution of pollution plume to east from Wadi
Zeimar. The spatial distribution of concentration is par-
allel to the input source. The effects of pollution plume
after 300 days cover an area of 9.0 km2, and about 14.0
km2 after 6000 days of simulation. The modeled ground-
water velocities in the recharge zones of the aquifer are
sufficient to carry pollutants by advective process. The
simulated plume of chloride shows also a concentration
ranged from 41 to 624 ppm after 300 days, and therefore
4 wells will be affected by pollution plume. Meanwhile,
the simulated plume of chloride concentration ranges
from 91 to 1368 ppm after 6000 days and about 7 wells
will be affected by the pollution plume. Figures 10 and
11 show the plan view simulations of the plume distribu-
tion within the aquifer system after 300 days and 6000
days, respectively. Figure 12 shows the side view simu-
lation of plume after 6000 days.
5. Research Results
Following the adopted methodology [9], vulnerability,
hazard, and risk maps were created for Tulkarm, as
shown in Figure 9. The vulnerability map shows the
intrinsic vulnerability and the natural protection of the
uppermost aquifer. The classified hazard map portrays
the areas or points at which activities lead to the degrada-
tion, directly or indirectly, of the quality of the environ-
ment. The risk map is used to describe the probability of
suffering harm from a hazard. With regard to groundwa-
ter, it refers to the possible contamination as a result from
a hazardous event.
From the final PI-map of Tulkarm, it was shown that
about 4% of the study area is classified as extreme vul-
nerability, 38% as high, 28% as moderate, 17% as low
and 13% as very low. Hence, Tulkarm city is classified
as high-to-moderate vulnerability. The hazards in Tul-
karm city represent Hazard Index Classes ranging from 1
to 3, therefore very low and low Hazard Levels dominate.
The results from the risk map of the study area show that
about 7.2% of the total area is classified as very high risk,
0.7% as high risk, 68.5% as moderate risk, 11.1% as low
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 36
Figure 10. Chloride concentration (mg/L) after 300 days.
Figure 11. Chloride concentration (mg/L) after 6000 days.
risk and 12.5% as no or very low risk. Hence, the study
area can be classified as a moderate risk area.
Hazards located in the highest risk areas (red) on the
risk map should be addressed and remediated first. Po-
tential hazards should be particularly avoided and pre-
vented in this area. Hazards in the next greatest areas of
risk should be addressed subsequently.
The results of the pollution model indicate a general
trend of pollution plume to the east from Wadi Zeimar.
The effects of this pollution plume will reach to consid-
erable areas. Within 300 days, the plume will occupy
about 9.0 km2, while it will reach to more than 14.0 km2
after 6000 days. The simulated plume of chloride has
concentration ranging from 41 to 624 ppm after 300 days,
so 4 wells will be affected by pollution. Meanwhile, the
simulated plume of chloride ranges from 91 to 1368 ppm
after 6000 days and about 7 wells will be affected by the
ollution plume. p
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 37
Figure 12. Side view of chloride concentration (mg/L) after 6000 days.
Production of Guidelines for Municipalities
This research has also produced policy recommendations
to be implemented for the case study municipality of
Tulkarm. These recommendations aim to help munici-
palities to prevent pollution of the critical trans-boundary
groundwater resources that underlie the Mountain Aqui-
fer, based on the findings and results of the general re-
search and the vulnerability, hazard, and risk assessment
and mapping carried out in this project. A guideline
document was created for Palestinian municipalities, for
the protection of groundwater from pollution sources
based on the vulnerability, hazard, risk mapping and the
pollution transport model, citing Tulkam as the case
study municipality.
The guidelines and recommendations produced will
provide a methodology to help municipalities begin solv-
ing the environmental issues they face. The goals of
these recommendations are to protect and prevent further
deterioration of the resources of the Mountain Aquifer
and to enable and empower municipal officials and staff
to achieve these goals. The approach used consists of
seven steps. The first two steps form the basis of the
Pro-Aquifer “toolkit” and the additional five steps serve
as “generic” policy recommendations to help municipali-
ties prevent groundwater pollution, and which comprise a
third key component of the “Pro-Aquifer” toolkit. In
brief, these steps are:
 Step 1: Conduct scientific and institutional research;
and, use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to
prioritize threats to the Aquifer.
 Step 2: Provide training courses on relevant topics
(e.g., sewage treatment management techniques) for
municipal staff.
 Step 3: Develop a strategic plan to prevent ground-
water pollution.
 Step 4: Enhance infrastructure.
 Step 5: Conduct inspections, monitoring, and enforce-
ment.
 Step 6: Secure sustainable financing.
 Step 7: Improve education and awareness.
For Tulkarm, a series of detailed, short (1 - 2 years),
medium (3 - 5 years) and long term (5+ years) recom-
mendations were developed. These recommendations
include:
 Enhancing infrastructure, taking population growth
into account, to improve solid waste collection and
disposal/prevent illegal dumping, and to enhance
sewage treatment;
 Expanding public education and awareness on local
environmental conditions and on ways in which to
protect the local, trans-boundary groundwater re-
sources of the Mountain Aquifer, especially by work-
ing with youth, women, and NGOs.
 Increasing the municipality’s institutional capacity to
conduct inspections and monitoring of infrastructure
and of businesses, and its capacity to enforce against
environmental violations;
 Securing sustainable local financing, for example, by
directing municipal taxes for water and sanitation
back into operating, maintaining, and upgrading these
systems;
 Developing a strategic plan to prevent groundwater
pollution that incorporates a holistic approach, based
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Protecting the Groundwater Environment of Tulkarem City of Palestine from Industrial and Domestic Pollution 38
on the concept and principles of Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM);
 Improving coordination and communication among
municipal departments to properly assign and address
environmental hazards.
○ Using GIS to share information among different
departments and provide a common base of in-
formation for dialogue.
○ Learning from other experiences in the region
through cooperation and exchanging ideas and in-
formation.
6. Conclusion
This paper has shown the importance of protecting Pales-
tinian water resources from pollution generated by mu-
nicipalities and the importance of effectively managing
these water resources. The general aim of this paper is to
addresses the protection of groundwater resources from
pollution from the unique perspective of local munici-
palities, in an attempt to help municipalities identify pol-
luting activities in their boundaries, as well as develop
policy mechanisms and techniques on preventing ground-
water pollution. The modeling and vulnerability mapping
assessment indicated that Tulkarm is located in a moder-
ate to highly vulnerable area, due to the natural charac-
teristics of the region. Sewage flow in the recharge area
of the Mountain Aquifer leads directly to pollution of
groundwater. Moreover, groundwater in that area is clo-
ser to the surface, requiring a shorter period of time for
pollutants to percolate and reach it. Unfortunately, it is
also the location of some of the most serious pollution
spots. So, these areas are particularly vulnerable to pollu-
tion from sewage, solid waste, agriculture and other
types of pollutants. The results of the pollution modeling
indicate a general significant trend and distribution of a
pollution plume because of raw sewage in wadi Zeimar
in the Tulkarm area. The pollution plume covers 14 km2
in the Tulkarm area after 6000 days of model simulation.
This will affect 7 groundwater wells in the area.
7. Recommendations
The outputs of this paper emphasize the need for more
efforts to protect natural resources from pollution. It is
recommended to take more cases of Palestinian munici-
palities and to study their sources of pollution and how
they impact on the shared groundwater resources. In or-
der for any comprehensive and integrated cooperative
approaches to be successful, it is recommended to con-
struct a comprehensive GIS database for pollution sources
that covers all municipalities. Although data availability
was an important indicator in the selection of the case
study of Tulkarm, once the actual work took place, it was
realized that some substantial data and information were
still needed. It is recommended that reliable data should
be available for all municipalities for future work. Pollu-
tion needs monitoring and real time data in order to alle-
viate its negative impacts on water resources. It is rec-
ommended to investigate one type of pollution (i.e. pol-
lution generated from improper solid waste management
practices), and to install monitoring equipment/structures
to study the degree of pollution and then introduce a so-
lution and use the same monitoring tool in order to see
how much pollution can be alleviated. Groundwater pol-
lution modeling for cities is highly recommended. This
will help investigate the degree of spread of pollution on
one hand and help investigate the effectiveness of any
solution that will be introduced in the future. The scien-
tific research and pollution modeling will help develop
groundwater protection guidelines and/or standards. Both
the results of the research and the groundwater protection
guidelines should establish the material for further train-
ing and capacity building programs for municipalities.
8. Acknowledgments
The House of Water and Environment (HWE) would like
to express their gratitude and appreciation to the Euro-
pean Commission—Environment DG-Life, and Green
Cross-France for the generous support and funding, with-
out which this project would not have been possible.
HWE would also like to thank Friends of the Earth-
Middle East and its team for their efforts.
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