Psychology
2011. Vol. 2, No. 1, 29-34
Copyright © 2011 SciRes. DOI:10.4236/psych.2011.21005
Factors Influencing the Development of “Purpose in Life”
and Its Relationship to Coping with Mental Stress
Riichiro Ishida1, Masahiko Okada2
1Faculty of Medicine, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan;
2Division of Clinical Preventive Medicine, Graduate School of Medical
and Dental Sciences, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan.
Received September 30th, 2010; revised December 22nd, 2010; accepted December 26th, 2010.
Purpose: Factors influencing the development of purpose in life (PIL) were examined. Methods: We recruited
67 healthy students of Niigata University (34 males and 33 females, 18-35 years of age). PIL and approval mo-
tivation (AM), and memories of experiences (IME) were measured using the PIL test, Martin-Larsen Approval
Motivation Scale (MLAM), and the Early Life and Youth Experiences Inventory. Confusion, heart rate, systolic
blood pressure, and thumb-tip temperature were measured before and during “Evaluating-Integrating Words
Task (EIWT).” Results: In the Profile of Mood States (POMS) tests, changes in the confusion scores were sig-
nificantly higher in the weak PIL compared to the firm PIL group. The scores were significantly higher for the
firm AM compared to the weak AM group. Changes in heart rate were significantly higher in the weak PIL
compared to the firm PIL group. IME scores for memories of the beauty of nature, empathetic listening from
parents and teachers were positively or negatively correlated with PIL test scores or MLAM scores for life stag-
es: infancy, junior high school, and university. Conclusion: PIL and AM seemed to grow through the experi-
ences of the beauty of nature and empathic understanding by parents and teachers during various developmental
stages. Purpose in life had greater influence on emotional response and the autonomic nervous system response
during psychologica l st ress compared to approval motivation
Keywords: Purpose in Life, Approval Motivation, S tress, Confusion, Sympathetic Nervous Activity
Introduction
Every person has the “will” to seek meaning in life or to
achieve purpose in life (PIL) that is a concept drawn from exis-
tentialism (Frankl, 1972; Ishida, 2008). Every person is moti-
vated to win the approval of others (Ishida, 2008). Recently it
was reported that variations in the stress response, including
emotional and sympathetic nervous system activity depends on
one’s view of life (Ishida, 2008). Crumbaugh and Maholick
(Crumbaugh & Maholic, 1964) developed the PIL test to assess
the intensity of response related to personal meaning in one’s
life, and Sato and Tanaka modified the test for use with a Japa-
nese population (Sato & Tanaka, 1974). Larsen and Martin
developed Martin-Larsen Approval Motivation Scale (MLAM)
to assess the intensity of approval motivation (AM) (Ueda &
Yoshimori, 1991), and Ueda and Yoshimori adapted it (Ueda &
Yoshimori, 1991). Motivation can be classified as intrinsic and
extrinsic (Bundra, 1977). The former relates to PIL (Frankl,
1972; Crumbaugh & Maholic, 1964; Sato & Tanaka, 1974),
and the latter relates to the desire to get praise or to avoid pun-
ishment by others, such as parents or school teachers. Extrinsic
motivation relates to AM (Ishida, 2008). Persons with a firm
PIL exhibit lower anxiety, less tension, and less acute sympa-
thetic nervous system response un der stressful conditions such a s
meeting unfamiliar persons (Ishida, 2008), or watching a kalei-
doscopic roller coaster video (Ishida & Okada, 2006). A strong
sense of PIL is widely recognized as an asset for coping with
stress, but the underlining mechanism needs further clarification.
Persons feel comfortable (less confused) when psychological
events are readily integrated and mentally processed. Discom-
fort (more confused) occurs when there is difficulty in intellec-
tually and emotionally incorporating these events (Ueda &
Yoshimori, 1991; Stanga et al., 2007). Feeling comfortable or
uncomfortable leads to lesser or greater sympathetic nervous
response, respectively (Ishida & Okada, 2006). Our previous
study showed that persons with a firm PIL had an ability to
integrate psychological events wit h less confusion (Ishida, 2008).
Also, a firm PIL produced less sympathetic nervous system
activity under stressful conditions. In contrast, persons with a
strong need for appro val tended to have more anxiety and greater
sympathetic nervous system activity during a mental arithmetic
task than persons with less need for approval (Ishida, 2008).
We hypothesized that PIL and AM during the various devel-
opmental stages played an important role in the ability to cope
with stressful psychological events. In the present study, we
investigated the correlations between PIL and AM and factors
influencing the development of PIL and AM. We used various
experiences, such as being surrounded by beautiful natural
scenery, or a scenario where parents or school teachers are
providing active and empathetic listening. Self-report ques-
tionnaires and autonomic nervous function tests were used to
measure responses to these scenarios.
Method
Subjects
We recruited 67 students (34 males and 33 females, 18-35

R. ISHIDA ET AL.
30
years of age) from a variety of departments from Niigata Uni-
versity. Subjects were instructed not to drink any alcohol or tea
and not to smoke on the day of the experiment. We did not give
any instructions as for food intake. Each subject was tested
separately. Three subjects were excluded because their behavior
was affecting the autonomic nervous function tests. The sub-
jects were assigned to firm PIL group (F-PIL group) or to weak
PIL group (W-PIL group) based on test scores. Subjects were
also assigned to a firm approval motivation group (F-AM group)
or a weak approval motivation group (W-AM group). The study
was approved by the ethics committee of the Faculty of Medi-
cine of Niigata University (No. 562) and written informed con-
sent was obtained from all subjects.
Measuring PIL and AM
The PIL test was used to measure the intensity of PIL and
consisted of 20 questions, such as, “I have definite goals and
aims,” “My life is filled with exciting and good things,” and “I
would feel my life was worthwhile even if I died today”. The
subjects responded using a 7-point scale (1: not at all, through 7:
very strongly). The total scores were standardized to 50, and
standard deviation (SD) to 10. Higher scores indicated a strong-
er sense of PIL. MLAM was used to measure the intensity of
AM and consisted of 20 items such as “conforming to the ex-
pectations of others,” “never begging a person’s pardon,” and
“acceptance of punishment by others”. The subjects responded
using a 5-point scale (1: not at all, through 5: very strongly).
MLAM scores ranged from 20 to 100 points. Higher scores
indicated a st ronger AM.
Evaluatin g the Intensity of Memories of Experiences
(IME)
We used the Early Life and Youth Experiences Inventory
(EYEI), which is a newer version of the Early Life, Youth, and
Adulthood Experiences Inventory (EYAEI) (Ishida, 2008). In
this test, the subjects were asked: “Do you remember having
feelings that were associated with the beauty of nature?” “Do
you remember if your parents listened to you with empathy and
support?” and “Do you remember if your teachers listened to
you with empathy and support?” These questions were sepa-
rately directed towards times of infancy ( < 6 years of age),
elementary school (6-11 years of age), junior high school
(12-14 years of age), senior high school (15-17 years of age),
and university (18 years of age to the present). The subjects
answered using a 7-point scale (1: not at all, through 7: very
strongly).
Experimental Stress Using “Evaluating-Integrating
Words Ta sk (EIWT)”
We prepared a 30 cm × 50 cm sheet printed with six open
circles; “My purpose in life” was written in the center circle
(Figure 1). Twenty chips (3 cm in diameter) were labeled with
words relating to psychological events. These words were ob-
tained from random samples of “Word Association Norms”
(Umemoto, 1969). In order to avoid biased responses, two sets
of 20 words were prepared, and then one set was randomly
assigned to each subject. After completion of the psychological
tests, subjects performed a four-minute task in the presence of
Figure 1.
An example of Evaluating-Integrating Words Task (EIWT), using a set
of 20 words. The alternative set included 20 different words: school,
long, question, black, swim, escape, back, friendship, want, shout,
abandonment, wages, eruption, crow, debt, cause, plan, publicity, rea-
son, and popularity.
the experimenter (male, 59 years of age). The experimenter said,
“You should place the 20 words within six open circles in four
minutes. If the word more accurately describes your purpose in
life, you should place it closer to the center of the circle. Place
words of similar value at the same distance from the center.
After the task, you should explain your arrangement of the
words. Any talking during the experiment is prohibited.” We
originally developed this protocol: “Evaluating-Integrating Words
Task (EIWT)”.
Autonomic Nervous Function Tests
The parameters of the autonomic nervous activity were heart
rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and thumb-tip tem-
perature (TTT). These were measured before and during EIWT,
after sitting comfortably in a chair for 20 minutes (Munir et al.,
1996). HR and SBP were recorded with an electric sphygmo-
manometer (ES-P100 0, TERUMO-Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Jpan), and
TTT was measured with a skin thermometer (D717, TECH-
NOL7-Co., Ltd.). Room temperature was set at 23.99 ± 1.27℃,
humidity at 54.90 ± 2.15%, illumination at 757.76 ± 60.70 lx,
and noise level at 39.96 ± 0.27 dB. Atmospheric pressure
(1017.81 ± 5.97 hPa) was measured at the time of the experi-
ment. The data were expressed as mean ± SD.
Measuring Mood
In order to measure mood, we used the Profile of Mood
States (POMS) which is a self-report test developed by McNair
et al. (Aroian et al., 2007) and revised by Yokoyama (Yoko-
yama, 2006). The test included questions about six moods:

R. ISHIDA ET AL. 31
confusion, tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, fatigue, an-
ger-hostility, and vigor. Confusion, for example, included five
elements: “confused”, “unable to concentrate”, “bewildered”,
“efficient”, and “forgetful.” Responses were set on a 5-point
scale (1: not at all, through 5: very strongly). Mean and SD of
scores for each subscale were 50 and 10 points, respectively.
Higher scores indicated more confusion (Yokoyama, 2006).
Statistical Analyses
Chi-square test was used for evaluating differences in gender
between the F-PIL and W-PIL groups and the F-AM and
W-AM groups. An unpaired 2-tailed t test was used for evalu-
ating differences in age, PIL test scores, MLAM test scores,
and environmental conditions between the two groups. A paired
2-tailed t test was used for evaluating the changes in scores of
POMS and each of the three autonomic indicators before and
during EIWT. The odds ratios (OR) of IME scores (strong
memory:  5 points, and weak memory:  4 points), gender,
and age were obtained to predict PIL and AM. ANCOVA was
done for evaluating change of scores in the POMS test. AN-
COVA was also done for PIL, MLAM scores, and gender.
ANOVAs were performed for evaluating change in heart rate
(CH-HR), change in systolic blood pressure (CH-SBP), change
in thumb-tip temperature (CH-TTT), PIL, MLAM score, gender,
and age. Pearson’s correlation analyses and partial correlation
analyses were done for correlations between PIL test scores and
MLAM scores and between CH-CS and CH-HR, CH-SBP, and
CH-TTT. Statistical significance was accepted at the p < 0.05
level. Bonferroni correction was also applied. SPSS software
(SPSS Japan Inc, Tokyo, Japan) was used for the statistical
analyses.
Figure 2.
Correlations between purpose in life test scores and Martin-Larsen
Approval Motivation Scale (MLAM) scores. Pearson’s correlation
coefficient is -0.305 (p < 0.05) and partial correlation coefficient con-
trolling for gender and age is -0.270(p < 0.05). Line indicates regres-
sion.
IME Scores
IME scores of remembering feelings associated with the
beauty of nature during infancy, junior high school, and univer-
sity were positively correlated with PIL test scores; however
IME scores were negatively correlated with MLAM scores for
the university age time period (Table 2). IME scores for memo-
ries of empathetic listening from parents during the university
period were positively correlated with PIL test scores. The IME
scores of elementary school age were negatively correlated with
PIL test scores. The IME scores of elementary school age were
positively correlated with MLAM scores. IME scores for em-
pathetic listening by teachers during the junior high school age
were positively correlated with PIL test scores. The IME scores
in senior high school age were positively correlated with
MLAM scores. The IME scores during infancy were negatively
correlated with MLAM scores. Age was positively correlated
with PIL test scores.
Results
Basic Characteristics
The F-PIL group was significantly older than the W-PIL
group (Table 1). MLAM scores were significantly higher for
the W-PIL group compared to the F-PIL group. Significant
negative correlations were observed between PIL test scores
and MLAM scores using Pearson’s coefficients and also by
partial correlation coefficients (Figure 2).
Parameters of the Autonomic Nervous System
After Bonferroni corrections, POMS scores showed significant
Table 1.
Demographic and psychological characteristics of firm purpose in life (F-PIL) and weak purpose in life (W-PIL) groups and firm approval motiva-
tion (F-AM) and weak approval motivation (W-AM) groups.
PIL AM
Parameters F-PIL group
(n = 36) W-PIL group (n = 31) p F-AM group (n = 34) W-AM group (n = 33) p
Demographic parameters
Subjects (male/female): n (17/19) (17/14) 0.627 (16/18) (18/15) 0.628
Age, y 21.50 ± 2.89 20.19 ± 1.35 * 20.50 ± 1.58 21. 30 ± 2.97 0. 171
Psychological parameters
PIL test scores (points) 59.78 ± 4.22 45.23 ± 6.86 *** 51.94 ± 9.72 54.18 ± 8.59 0.32 2
MLAM sco res (points) 60.58 ± 7.48 65.55 ± 7.19 ** 68.88 ± 4.93 56.70 ± 4.44 ***
n: number of subjects, PIL: purp ose in li fe, MLAM: Martin-Lar sen App roval Motivation Scale, AM: approval motivation. Data are mean ± standard deviation (SD). *p <
0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

R. ISHIDA ET AL.
32
Table 2.
Correlations of purpose in life test (PIL) scores and Martin-Larsen Approval Motivation Scale (MLAM) scores, and intensity of memories of experi-
ences (IME) score for five developmental sta ges and demographic characteristics: Logistic re g r e s s i o n a nalysis (N = 67).
PIL AM
Memories of the
beauty of nature
Empathetic
listening by
parents
Empathetic
listening by
teachers
Memories of the
beauty of nature
Empathetic
listening by
parents
Empathetic
listening by
teachers
Parameters
Coef p Coef p Coef p Coef p Coef p Coef p
IME scores
Infancy 3.97 * 0.86 0.5832.46 0.073–0.64 0.692 –0.52 0.705 –4.48 **
Elementary school –2.35 0.059 –3.78 * –1.22 0.316–0.71 0.578 4.51 * 1.71 0.198
Junior high school 2.62 * 0.69 0.5033.28 * –1.71 0.134 –0.96 0.386 1.28 0.218
Senior high school –1.66 0.223 1.36 0.2560.15 0.894–0.27 0.853 0.35 0.778 4.75 **
University 4.66 ** 2.62 * –0.60 0.640–2.45 * –2.44 0.072 –1.99 0.096
Gender –1.68 0.148 –0.56 0.549
Age 0.76 * 0.08 0.662
Constant –22.45 * 0.61 0.862
Odds ratio Odds ratio Odds ratio Odds ratio Odds ratio Odds ratio
IME scores
Infancy 52.79 2.37 11.74 0.53 0.60 0.01
Elementary school 0.10 0.02 0.30 0.49 90.93 5.50
Junior high school 13.69 1.99 26.56 0.18 0.38 3.60
Senior high school 0.19 3.89 1.16 0.77 1.42 115.49
University 106.03 13.74 0.55 0.09 0.09 0.14
Gender 0.19 0.57
Age 2.14 1.08
AM: approval motivation. In the logistic regression analyses, ‘1’ and ‘0’ were assigned to the F-PIL and W-PIL groups, F-AM and W-AM groups were the dependent
variables, IME scores ( strong memory:  5 points, and weak memory:  4 points) were the independent variables: memories of the beauty of nature, empathetic listening
by parents a nd teachers, and male and female. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.
increase in confusion before and during EIWT; HR and SBP
were significantly increased, and TTT was significantly de-
creased before and during EIWT. In POMS test, changes in
confusion (CH-CS) were significantly higher for the W-PIL
compared to the F-PIL group. The scores were significantly
higher for F-AM compared to the W-AM group (Table 3).
CH-HR was significantly higher for W-PIL compared to the
F-PIL group after Bonferroni correction. Pearson’s correlation
coefficients (r = 0.309) and partial correlation coefficients (r =
0.333) between CH-CS and CH-SBP were significant after
Bonferroni corr e ction.
Discussion
We developed EIWT as a psychological test to assess the
ability to cope with stressful psychological events. We found
that confusion and autonomic nervous responses such as HR,
SBP, and TTT changed significantly during the test. The results
showed that the test itself might be a source of emotional stress
for the subjects. We found that the intensity of PIL was in-
versely correlated with AM. Persons with a firm PIL showed
fewer changes in the scores that reflected less confusion during
EIWT. Whereas, persons with a firm AM showed much larger
changes in scores that reflected confusion compared to those
with a firm PIL. It can be concluded that PIL and AM grown
and developed through the stages of infancy, elementary school,
junior high school, senior high school and university.
A firm purpose in life including weak approval motivation
can be controlled with conscious regulation, while autonomic
nervous functions can not (Ishida & Okada, 2006). Strong
memories of the beauty of nature during infancy, junior high
school, and university, in fact, facilitated the growth of intrinsic
motivation and a firm PIL (Table 2). Strong memories of such
experiences during the university period decreased extrinsic
motivation and AM. Strong memories of empathic understand-
ing from parents during the university age facilitated the

R. ISHIDA ET AL. 33
Table 3.
Change in scores reflecting confusion (CH-CS) and cardiovascular measures for F-PIL and W-PIL groups and for F-AM and W -A M groups: Analysis
of covariance (ANCOVA) for CH-CS and analysis of variance (ANOVA) for change in heart rate (CH-HR), systolic blood pressure (CH-SBP), and
thumb-tip temperature (CH-TTT).
PIL AM
Parameters F-PIL group
(n = 36) W-PIL group (n = 31) p F-AM group (n = 34) W-AM gro u p (n = 33) p
CH-CS (point s) 5.92 ± 11.84 12.19 ± 12.07 * 9.97 ± 14.60 7.64 ± 9.36 *
CＨ-HR (beats/min) 8.78 ± 6.09 12.00 ± 7.19 ＋ 10.32 ± 6.34 10.21 ± 7.27 0.610
CH-SBP (mmHg) 4.89 ± 7.30 5 .10 ± 7.09 0.367 4.35 ± 7. 56 5.64 ± 6.76 0.580
CH-TTT (℃) 1.00 ± 0.91 1 .07 ± 0.97 0.420 1.09 ± 0.92 0.97 ± 0.96 0.503
PIL: purpose in life; AM: approval motiva tion; F-PIL: fi rm purpose in life; W-PIL : weak purp ose in li fe; F-A M: firm approval m otivation; W- AM: weak approval motiva-
tion. *p < 0.05, +p < 0 .05 / 3 = 0. 0 16 after Bonferroni c orrection.
development of firm PIL. Furthermore, the strong memories of
empathic understanding from teachers in junior high school age
facilitated firm PIL. Strong memories of empathic understand-
ing from teachers during infancy decreased AM. Shirasa re-
ported that children showed rapid mental and physical devel-
opment during infancy, rejected their parents, and rejected or
showed respect for teachers during junior high school age.
Adolescents also worried about and were willing to establish
PIL during university age (Shirasa, 1981). Existing data indi-
cated that personality was affected by traits that were estab-
lished during each developmental stage (Shirasa, 1981; Allen,
2000). The present data supports these studies. Surprisingly,
strong memories of empathic understanding by parents during
elementary school age decreased PIL; whereas strong memories
of empathic understanding from teachers during senior high
school age increased AM. A previous study showed that con-
formation to others’ expectation decreased intrinsic motivation
and increased extrinsic motivation (Ishida, 2008; Bundra, 1977).
Children imitate parental lifestyle without any criticisms during
elementary school age (Shirasa, 1981), and will willingly dem-
onstrate behaviors, such as preparing to enter into a “good uni-
versity” and seeking out “good company” (Shirasa, 1981). This
may support the decrease of PIL.
Regarding PIL, the changes in both CH-CS and CH-HR were
lower in the F-PIL group than the W-PIL group. CH-CS was
positively correlated with CH-HR. Regarding AM, changes in
CH-CS were greater in the F-AM group than in the W-AM
group. CH-CS was not significantly correlated with CH-HR,
but was positively correlated with CH-SBP. These findings
suggest that PIL influences emotion and the autonomic nervous
system more strongly than AM. It is apparent that strong mem-
ories during the various developmental stages play an important
role in the ability to cope with stressful psychological events
(Shirasa, 1981; Allen, 2000).
There are some limitations in this study. The subjects were
students. Future studies should include various age groups and
occupations. Since elementary school spans 6 years, data col-
lection was arbitrarily divided into a lower age and a highe r age
(Shirasa, 1981). The experiments were performed using the
hypothesis that EIWT reflected “evaluation and integration of
psychological events.”; however, we did not define this concept.
Experimenter bias might also be a factor.
Conclusion
Purpose in life had a greater influence than approval motiva-
tion on emotional response and autonomic nervous system
function during psychological stress. Purpose in life and moti-
vation based on the need for approval seem to grow through
experiences such as the exposure to the beauty of nature and
supportive and empathic understanding from parents and
teachers during various developmental stages.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Science Re-
search from the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science
(No. 19927018; 2007). The authors wish to express their grati-
tude to Yuko Ishida for the data analysis.
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