Selling Politics? How the Traits of Salespeople Manifest Themselves in Irish Politicians

doi:10.4236/ojps.2013.34024

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Open Journal of Political Science

2013. Vol.3, No.4, 175-183

Published Online October 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojps) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojps.2013.34024

Selling Politics? How the Traits of Salespeople Manifest

Themselves in Irish Politicians

Dónal Ó Mearáin, Roger Sherlock, John Hogan

College of Business, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland

Email: domearain@hotmail.com, roger.sherlock@dit. ie , john.hogan@dit.ie

Received July 23rd, 20 13 ; revised August 30th, 2013; accepted September 13th, 2013

Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

This article seeks to uncover if some of the traits most associated with salespeople manifested themselves

in the activities of candidates in the constituency of Dún Laoghaire during the 2007 Irish general election.

Such a finding would suggest that just as political parties have looked to the marketing profession for

their lead in developing political marketing, politicians are looking to, and adopting the traits of those in

the sales profession. This would point to the traits that the modern politician must possess in order to get

and remain elected. It would also raise significant questions in terms of how candidates present them-

selves to the electorate, as well as how they go about campaigning and formulating policy.

Keywords: Traits; Sales; Marketing; Election; Trust; Empathy; Ego

Introduction

Traditionally, in political science, election results received

most of the attention (Campbell, 2000; Holbrook, 1996). The

prevailing view was that the relative stability of party loyalties

and values, left little room for analysis of the campaigns to

persuade voters, while undecided voters—those most likely to

be persuaded—paid little attention to campaigns (Campbell,

2000). The marketing efforts of parties were seen to negate

each other. As a result, political campaigning and accompany-

ing marketing were regarded as having little effect on voter

choices and election results (Steger, Kelly, & Wrighton, 2006).

However, over the last quarter century, political actors—in-

terest groups, candidates and political parties—have been in-

creasingly thinking in marketing terms (Henneberg, 2008). This

is clear from their use of marketing management theories, with

the result that today marketing is an integral part of politics

(Moloney, 2004). “Political marketing is a global phenomenon

with parties from all corners of the world developing manifes-

tos based around the results of qualitative and quantitative

marketing research” (Lilleker & Lees-Marshment, 2005: 1).

A central issue in the broader marketing discipline is the ten-

sion, gaps and fraught interactions between salespeople and

marketing, rather than the assumed fit between these domains

(Malshe, 2010; Malshe & Sohi, 2009; Oliva, 2006; Matthyssens

& Johnston, 2006). The emergence of these tensions in the

political domain reinforces the need to explore this issue.

As consumers have become educated to marketing tech-

niques, they have become more discerning in the political arena.

In response, parties have sought to use cutting edge commercial

techniques to gain their attention/support. According to Lilleker

& Lees-Marshment (2005), many modern parties aim at per-

suading voters through marketing, based on an understanding

of how markets can be manipulated. This approach seeks to

make the public desire what the party is offering—utilizing

advertising and message construction research (Fill, 2002).

While Irish political parties have traditionally competed less on

policy and ideological differences, and more on what they can

do for voters (Katz, 1984), the question we ask here is—are

Irish politicians sales orientated? Specifically, in what way do

the traits of a salesperson manifest themselves in the under-

standing of the modern Irish candidate? This paper will,

through an exploratory process, develop insights into the mani-

festation of selling traits and practices among Irish politicians

in one of the largest and most affluent constituencies in the

county.

The Electoral and Constituency Context

Intraparty electoral competition is integral to the proportional

representation single transferrable vote (PRSTV) electoral sys-

tem in Ireland (Gallagher, 2005a). This PR system creates a

situation where the primary decisions to be made by voters

concern their choices of representatives for their constituency

(Lynch & Hogan, 2012). The result is the concept of a connec-

tion between voters and candidates that is stronger than the

concept of party representation found in the PR list systems

(Sinnott, 2009: 112). Over the past few decades there has been

an ongoing debate concerning the extent to which PRSTV is to

blame for the preoccupation of Teachtaí Dála (TDs) with con-

stituency service (FitzGerlad, 2002). Katz (1984) points out that

party competition in Ireland tends to be based on services pro-

vided as opposed to policy differences.

With the major parties running two to three candidates in

each multi-seat constituency, these candidates are primarily

competing with each other for the first preference votes of those

constituents committed to their party, much more so than with

candidates from rival parties (Gallagher, 2005a). This need to

D. Ó MEARÁIN ET AL.

win as many first preference votes as possible can create a lack

of harmony between running mates, where the individual can-

didate is central to voter choice rather than the party (Benoit &

Marsh, 2003). That said, all candidates would like to attract

floating voters and the second and third preferences of con-

stituents who would be supporters of rival parties. This need

results in candidates wanting to be perceived as constituency

workers. Consequently, TDs primary focus is perceived to be

on constituency issues, with national affairs coming second in

their consideration (Gallagher, 2005b). In this context, cam-

paigning in Irish elections is dominated by face to face interac-

tion between candidates and constituents. Over 60 per cent of

people received some personal contact from either candidates,

or their volunteers, in the 2007 general election (Sudulich &

Wall, 2009: 459). Therefore, it is appropriate and suitable to

explore the politician as a salesperson.

The candidates whose traits will be examined all ran in the

2007 general election in the constituency of Dún Laoghaire. Of

the 11 candidates who competed for the five seats the paper

focuses upon:

 Mary Hanafin TD, (Fianna Fáil (FF))—Minister for Educa-

tion and Science.

 Barry Andrews TD, (FF)—Minister of State for Children.

 Séan Barrett, (Fine Gael (FG))—a former minister, did not

stand in the 2002 election.

 Eamon Gilmore TD, (Labour Party (LP))—opposition party

leader.

 Eugene Regan (FG)—first time g e n er a l el e c ti o n candidate .

The quota in Dún Laoghaire was 9,786 votes. The incumbent

candidates were Hanafin, Andrews, Gilmore, O’Malley and

Cuffe. Hanafin was elected on the first count. Of her surplus of

2,098 votes, 1,390 went to Andrews, electing him on the sec-

ond count. Gilmore was elected on the 7th count, with Barrett

following on the 9th (Table 1). The last seat went to Cuffe on

the 10th country. Of the incumbents only O’Malley lost her seat.

Campaign spending has been linked to election results—spe-

cifically with a greater share of first preference votes (Benoit &

Marsh, 2004). However, Table 1 shows that the candidate who

spent the least, Hanafin, won the highest percentage of first

preference votes. Quinn and O’Malley, the first and third high-

est spending candidates finished 9th and 10th respectively, high-

lighting that expenditure and incumbency, do not always guar-

antee success. That said, Cuffe, Andrews and Barrett had the

second, fourth and fifth highest expenditures.

Research Motivation: The Selling Traits of

Politicians

The aim of this paper is to uncover if the traits of a salesper-

son manifested themselves in the campaigning activities and

understandings of the selected candidates.

Greenberg and Greenberg (1976) argue that the traits sales-

people possess, and how these are combined, differentiate them

from other professions. The importance of these traits has come

to the fore as we have moved away from assuming that a sales-

person’s function is to sell—and that success depends on them

alone—to seeing the selling/buying process as actively engaged

in by salespeople and customers (Grikscheit, Cash, & Young,

1993). The most important traits associated with salespeople

are integrity and trustworthiness (Peterson & Lucas, 2001), a

strong ego (Rasmussen, 1999), empathy (Hogan, 1969), posi-

tioning and communicating persuasively (Karr, 2009) and per-

sistence due to the perpetually challenging nature of sales

(Duran, 2004).

‘Trust is an integral component of the sales relationship’

(Haan & Berkey, 2006: 122). People will purchase from those

they trust. According to Swan, Trawick & Silva (1985) trust is

at the heart of enduring relationships with customers. However,

trustworthiness is paradoxical in business, as a salesperson’s

instinct is to be opportunistic (Oakes, 1990). What allows trust

to be built (consistency) is broken by this opportunistic instinct.

Ego, in the form of a strong desire to succeed, is seen as crucial

for the success and survival of a salesperson (Mayer & Green-

berg, 2006). “To top salespeople, the sale—the conquest—pro-

vides a powerful means of enhancing the ego” (Allen, 2010:

120).

Many psychologists feel that empathy, the ability to accu-

rately perceive the feelings of clients, is crucial in selling and

developing trust (Lee & Dubinsky, 2003). Empathy goes be-

yond being sympathetic, as one can understand what another

feels without agreeing with that feeling (Allen, 2010). Findings

suggest successful salespeople show moderate empathy. The

Table 1.

Candidate expenditure and first preference votes in Dún Laoghaire (2007).

Candidate Total expenses €000 Expenditure

Ranking % of total constituency

expenditure % of first preference

votes won Count elected

Andrews, Barry FF 25.72 4th 11.2 14.6 2nd

Bailey, John FG 20.50 7th 8.9 7.4

Barrett, Séan FG 22.41 5th 9.2 9.1 9th

Boyd Barrett, Richard PBP 16.76 9th 7.3 8.9

Cuffe, Ciarán GP 29.47 2nd 12.9 7.7 10th

Gilmore, Eamon LAB 20.06 8th 8.7 12.4 7th

Hanafin, Mary FF 14.47 10th 6.3 20.2 1st

O’Malley, Fiona PD 31.08 1st 13.5 6.7

Quinn, Oisín LAB 28.97 3rd 12.5 3.8

Regan, Eugene FG 20.66 6th 9 7.1

Eoin O Broin SF 18.40 11th 0.8 2.1

176

D. Ó MEARÁIN ET AL.

salesperson with too much empathy will be considered “nice”,

but will often miss a sale (Mayer & Greenberg, 2006). The US

government’s own Department of Labor has pointed out that

the ability to communicate persuasively is vital for anyone

planning a career in marketing, sales or public relations (Labor

Department, 2010). Persistence is something all sales people

must to possess. According to Zeller (2011: 202) “persistence is

a resolved mindset to continue on even in the face of adversity

or preliminary negative results”.

“Political parties no longer pursue grand ideologies, fervently

arguing for what they believe in and trying to persuade the

masses to follow them” (Lees-Marshment, 2001: 1). This is

because, in many countries, they have seen the social founda-

tions of their support evaporating—as the homogenous social

classes that gave rise to the m become difficult to define (Chad-

wick, 2006). In such heterogeneous political environments

voters are likely to be more issue orientated (Kotler & Kotler,

1999). As a result parties have adopted a market orientated

approach—seeking to satisfy the voters (customers) demands.

This has engendered fundamental shifts in all aspects of their

behaviour, as they adopt a marketing philosophy (Lilleker,

Jackson & Scullion, 2006). However, in Ireland, ideological

differences between the parties have never been at the centre of

electoral competition—services have (Katz, 1984).

To be market orientated involves a set of behaviours based

on the ability to act upon market intelligence with a focus upon

customers, competitors and how the various parts of the busi-

ness act in concert (Ormrod & Henneberg, 2006). In the market

orientated political party “its members are sensitive to the atti-

tudes, needs and wants of both external and internal stake-

holders, and use this information within limits imposed by all

stakeholder groups in order to develop policies and pro-

grammes that enable the party to reach its aims” (Ormrod,

2005: 51). Ormrod’s (2005) conceptual model of Political

Market Orientation (PMO) focuses on the attitudes of party

members to voters, competitors, and other external stakeholder

groups. In this context, and in light of the above traits associ-

ated with salespeople, viewing political campaigning as a form

of sales involving interpersonal communication recognizes the

politician and voter as active participants—like seller and

prospect. The need satisfaction approach to selling fits well

with politics, as it is the voter’s (prospects’) needs that are the

priority of the politician (seller). This is a customer orientated

approach to selling—as their point of view and unique needs

are being addressed. In this approach, it is the politician’s

(salesperson’s) task to identify the need that is to be met and

then to help the voter (buyer) meet that need (Ingram et al.,

2007).

Research Methodology

As the paper is seeking to understand, but not to quantify, the

nature of politicians as salespeople, a qualitative, interpretive

research approach is the most appropriate here. An interpreta-

tive approach stresses the difference between the humanities

and natural sciences in its quest for understanding rather than

explanation or prediction (Holbrook & O’Shaughnessy, 1988).

The most common method used to access such understanding is

the in-depth interview. This technique aims to uncover a par-

ticipant’s outlook on the world and in so doing give a deeper

insight into a research problem. It has been described as a con-

versation with a purpose (Kahn & Cannell, 1957). As such, the

information is expressed in words—descriptions, accounts,

opinions and feelings (Walliman, 2005).

Purposive sampling was used in this research. The principle

of purposive sampling is to “maximise discovery of the hetero-

geneous patterns” and not to generalize to the broad population

(Erlandson et al., 1993). The nature of the simultaneous genera-

tion of the data and its analysis creates an emergent design and

also impacts on the sampling process. The objective is to “bot-

tom out” on the phenomenon; continuing to research the topic

until each subsequent interview provides no new dimensions on

the phenomenon. While there are no upper or lower limits to

sample size for such a study, a sample of ten is typical, with 3

to ten respondents being utilized by McCracken (1998) and

Mick & Buhl (1992). As McCracken (1998: 17) describes it,

“qualitative research does not survey the terrain, it mines it. It is,

in other words, much more intensive than extensive in its ob-

jectives”.

Of the 43 constituencies in the 2007 general election, Dún

Laoghaire was one of 12 five seat constituencies and one of

only three five seaters in Dublin, the remainder being three or

four seat constituencies. This made Dún Laoghaire one of the

larger constituencies in the county. In 2007, Dún Laoghaire was

the most affluent and prosperous five seat constituency, with

more than twice as many constituents, as the national average,

possessing third level degrees and a high proportion of profes-

sionals1. Following the election, the constituency was changed

to a four seater upon the recommendations of the Independent

Constituency Commission2. As there were five seats available

in this constituency, each of the larger parties, Fianna Fáil (FF),

Fine Gael (FG) and Labour ran two candidates, generating the

usual intraparty competition, with the remaining five candidates

coming from the minor parties and an independent. Thus, there

were 11 candidates competing for the constituency’s five seats,

encompassing a party leader, senior and junior ministers, senior

opposition TDs as well as some very junior candidates. The

five candidates selected for interview were representative of

this vast experiential range. Consequently, the interviewees

possessed similar and simultaneously different characteristics.

This research is heavily contextualised, framed within na-

tional politics, local politics, campaign expenditure and the

importance of temporality and location. Herein, reality is con-

structed socially and behaviour is determined by multiple and

changing variables (Hudson & Ozanne, 1988). In this environ-

ment the interpretivist approach is ideal, as it is intended to

explore the behaviour of the politicians through their own un-

derstandings of how they act (Mason, 2002). This allows for

meanings, views, opinions and attitudes to be interpreted

through construction of their responses (Creswell, 2003).

As there is an absence in the literature on whether politicians

model their practices on those of salespeople (Chisnall 2005),

analyzing the in-depth interviews will permit us discover if the

traits most associated in the literature with salespeople—integ-

rity and trustworthiness, a strong ego, empathy, positioning and

communicating persuasively and persistence—are to be found

amongst the selected politicians. The interviewees’ awareness

of marketing in politics will be addressed—as the role of mar-

keting in sales led to the development of relationship selling

and an awareness of the important traits salespeople possess.

1http://www.oireachtas.ie/documents/library/constituencies_profiles/Dun_La

oghaire.pdf

2http://www.constituency-commission.ie/docs%5Ccon2007.pdf

D. Ó MEARÁIN ET AL.

Examination of the Selling Traits of Dún

Laoghaire Candidates

The Importance of Integrity and Trustworthiness

In as much as the traits of integrity and trustworthiness in

salespeople are of crucial importance in the literature and yet

seem paradoxical, logic suggests that trusting someone who is

representing you, and your interests, as well as believing in

their integrity, is imperative. Killinger (2007: 12) defines integ-

rity as “a personal choice, an uncompromising and predictably

consistent commitment to honour moral, ethical, spiritual, and

artistic values and principles”. Integrity is an essential trait for a

politician. Newton (2007: 343) defines trust as “the belief that

others will not deliberately or knowingly do us harm, if they

can avoid it, and will look after our interests, if this is possible”.

Trust is indispensable from representative relationships in

modern democracies (Bianco, 1994). How career minded poli-

ticians pursue reelection is built upon assumptions of integrity

and trustworthiness (Hetherington, 2005).

However, being a politician is a role accompanied by a level

of suspicion found in few professions (McGraw, Lodge, &

Jones, 2002). They worry that distrust can be resolved by voters

through electoral replacement (Keele, 2005). As Regan told us,

it is “critical for politicians that they are seen to abide by the

standards set for themselves in legislation”, as otherwise they

will be tarnished and discredited.

Almost paradoxically, all interviewees admitted that a can-

didate had to be willing to be unpopular to be successful. They

all knew of instances where constituents did not appreciate

decisions they made, or policies they advocated. But, they were

nonetheless convinced the public respected them for these hard

decisions. Barrett felt that if a politician achieves a reputation

for honesty respect follows. This relates to interviewees em-

phasizing the importance of ethics in politics. To be perceived

as acting according to a certain standard, or upholding certain

commitments, is a basis of trustworthiness (Levi, 1998). As

Gilmore says, “people have to trust, and are entitled to trust,

their public representatives”. The kind of trust in the Irish con-

text is referred to as thick trust—that found in small bonded

communities made up of largely homogenous population (Wil-

liams, 1988).

Trust has been found to clearly correlate with electoral suc-

cess (Hetherington, 1999). Studies show competence, integrity

and honesty are attributes often ascribed to candidates by the

citizens who vote for them (Mattes et al., 2010). Awareness of

the importance of trust can allow politicians suppress more

opportunistic tendencies (Bromiley & Cummings, 1995). In

politics, “the absence of opportunistic behaviour is a crucial

condition for the trustor to place trust in a trustee” (Six, 2005:

18). Alternatively, salespeople are opportunistic by nature and

therefore tend to be inconsistent. Being perceived as consistent

may allow a politician avoid the kind of opportunism that can

diminish trust and damage a career. Consequently, in addition

to the importance of ongoing ethical behavior there is a histori-

cal element at work, in that a candidate’s past record is impor-

tant to an electorate with long memories (Lloyd, 2006).

The Importance of Empathy

In relation to salespeople, Greenberg, Weinstein & Sweeney

(2003) point out that the trait of empathy and the capacity to

empathize relates to ones motivation to do so. For the good

salesperson, while they might genuinely like meeting people

and wanting to serve them through the product they are offering,

they nevertheless see people as a means of making a sale. De-

spite this cold and hard calculation of selling, empathy is inte-

gral to a good sales technique (Greenberg, Weinstein, & Swee-

ney, 2003).

All interviewees enjoyed working with the public. They be-

lieved empathy critical to being able to engage constituents.

Empathy relates to sensitivity towards the needs of others,

compassion and a willingness to cooperate (Caprara et al.,

2003). They felt it vital to be able to understand constituents,

their needs, and how they expressed themselves. Regan re-

marked that it was necessary for a politician to like meeting

people—as they encounter constituents under a variety of cir-

cumstances—so they can develop a connection with constitu-

ents, wherein they are perceived as the ideal constituency rep-

resentative. Hanafin felt that a politician had to have “a genuine

interest in people and in the work”. She went on to say “the day

you stop enjoying it is the day you shouldn’t be a public repre-

sentative”. For Funk (1997) empathy—that trait which can fa-

cilitate relationship building—is crucial when dealing with

constituents.

The interviewees emphasized the need for empathy through

listening. In sales, being able to listen is a large part of being

empathetic and building trust (Ramsey & Sohi, 1997). They

consider the skill of listening vital to making a connection with

the electorate. Such listening permitted them get at what they

interpreted as the deeper meaning of messages coming from the

public. While empathy is not often considered as important to a

politician’s success as integrity—it is crucial in the develop-

ment of an overall evaluation of candidates and is important for

a politician attempting to build relationships.

Recognition of the importance of empathy by the candidates

comes from the realization that emotional reactions play a

powerful role in attracting people to candidates (Westen, 2007).

The implication of this finding is that candidate preference

amongst constituents can be impelled by the personality, as

much as by the policies they advocate (Iyer et al., 2010). Ac-

cording to the congruency model of political preference, voters

select politicians whose traits match their own (Caprara &

Zimbardo, 2004). This fits with the argument that similarity

breeds liking (Byrne, 1997). Similarities between voters and

politicians constitute the “humanizing glue”, which has a clear

impact upon various emotional and cognitive appraisals of can-

didates (Iyer et al., 2010: 295).

The Importance of Ego Strength

Ego strength is the degree to which an individual likes them-

selves. “If an individual possessed a high level of ego-strength,

then failures can motivate the person toward the next try”

(Greenberg, Weinstein & Sweeney, 2003: 43). In sales, pos-

sessing the trait of a strong ego is vitally important, as other-

wise rejection will lead to a diminished sense of self and self

confidence and ultimately the ability to bounce back from dis-

appointments.

Thus, while ego strength is a very important trait in sales, it

is also crucial in politics, where rejection and failure are ever

present realities. Barrett has particularly mixed feeling about

elections. He describes them as popularity contests—but ones

where everyone knows the result. He worries about how family

and friends will perceive him if defeated. He sees elections as

178

D. Ó MEARÁIN ET AL.

distinctive events, full of emotional highs and lows that are

impossible to describe. An election can be regarded as a refer-

endum on a candidate’s pervious performance (O’Shaugh-

nessey, 2001). But, despite Barrett’s concerns, he must possess

a high level of ego strength, as he has been a politician for over

thirty years.

Andrews admitted that being in the public eye had its pros

and cons. He said “the worst thing would be if you did some-

thing wrong and it affected somebody negatively, that’s where

it would be hard to get over”. However, this is to ignore the fact

that it has long been recognized that voters form opinions based

upon candidate’s images and not on campaign issues (Sears,

1969).

The interviewees’ admitted public life can be emotionally

challenging, but that setbacks are part of the job—just as in

sales (Mayer & Greenberg, 2006). Regan regarded his finishing

7th in such a competitive constituency as gratifying, but in re-

sponse embarked upon a Senate campaign. Once elected to the

Senate he felt he was able to put the Dáil defeat behind him.

Gilmore remarked that after the defeat of the Rainbow Coali-

tion government in 1997, in which he served as a minister of

state, he concentrated on constituency work, and on whatever

“spokespersoship” he was appointed to. Hanafin looked with

equanimity upon what she once considered career setbacks—

failure to get elected to the Dáil in 1989, losing her seat in Dub-

lin City Council in 1991, being appointed chief whip in 2002.

This enabled her rationalize these events. Ego, and particularly

ego strength, is crucial to the success and survival of politi-

cians.

The Importance of Positioning and Communicating

Persuasively

Salespeople are purposeful when it comes to the first impres-

sion, they are innately conscious of how they position them-

selves (Karr, 2009). This positioning sets the framework for the

subsequent interaction and relationship that develops between

the seller and customer. They also seek to communicate per-

suasively, delivering their message with eloquence and style

(Karr, 2009).

Both of these traits—positioning and persuasive communica-

tion—are crucial in politics. The interviewees discussed how

their parties’ conducted market research and spoke of the ne-

cessity of de livering a clea r and consistent message. Regan said

focus groups had been carried out by FG prior to the election

and their findings fed into the party’s policies. He admitted that,

as a candidate, he tried to ensure his policy messages were the

same as the party’s. His language betrayed how much a party’s

market research drives a campaign and is crucial in what can-

didates do. In contrast, Barrett portrayed FG as a lecturing/

sermonizing entity, using its platform to deliver decrees and

decide the course of action. Barrett said “we were trying to

preach a message that we were heading into trouble and unfor-

tunately people didn’t want to listen”. This suggests some poli-

cies were not based on the electorate’s input—but the party’s

vision. Lees-Marshment (2001) refers to this as a product ori-

entated approach.

As Gilmore is a party leader, he provided a national and con-

stituency perspective on the 2007 election. He said that in the

election Labour sought to present the option of an alternative

government—a Labour/FG collation. Feedback on Labour’s

policies was filtered through its social democratic lens, but was

also tempered by the need to coordinate its campaign with FG.

In addition to public opinion influencing policy formulation,

political neces s ity played a part.

In terms of positioning, Hanafin regarded it as a requirement

of the job for politicians to set high standards in how they pre-

sent themselves—the way they dress, comportment and per-

form for the media. As Kotler & Kotler (1999) suggest, when

talking about marketing in general, clothes, behavior and

statements all shape the impression created. Hanafin regarded

FF, and its policy vision for the economy, as being in control of

the agenda throughout the campaign. To some extent, her lan-

guage suggests, as Barrett’s did, that the party preaches a vi-

sion.

However, Hanafin’s running mate, Andrews, had a different

perception of how public opinion influences policy. He re-

cognized that while FF might have liked to talk about their

successes in the Northern Ireland peace process, or in relations

with the European Union (EU), the public set the agenda

through their concerns over the economy. By “the public” he is

referring to feedback from constituents, as well as information

gleaned from national polling data collected by the party. An-

drews’ likened policy making to sailing a yacht, “you can work

the tiller all you like but it’s which direction the wind blows is

crucial. The public determine which way the wind blows!” That

his perceptions strongly influenced his positioning and the

manner in which he communicated his policies ties in with

recent work in social psychology which points to the “gut-

level” intuitive processes that underlie a significant amount of

political decision making (Greene & Haidt, 2002; Westen,

2007). The candidates’ approaches to devising and communi-

cating policies fits with Lees-Marshment’s (2001) argument

that the market oriented party and candidates conduct research,

design policies around that research and adjusts their offerings

to make them achievable, popular and suitable to the party’s

ideals while still different to its competitors. More significantly,

all respondents echoed the fraught sales-marketing interface

(Malshe, 2010; Oliva, 2006; Malshe & Sohi, 2009; Matthyssens

& Johnston, 2006) whereby central planning by the Headquar-

ters (the political “marketing department”) could be at odds

with the individual candidates approach (the “sales depart-

ment”). As a result, the need for integration, communication

and coordinated planning at the interface between sales and

marketing is of e q u al i mportance in the sphere of politics as it is

in the commercial sphere.

The Importance of Persistence Due to the Perpetual

Political Campaign

“If you are in sales you are perpetually in a state of war”

(Martin, 2006: 9). Once a sale is completed the game is not

over, but begins anew. It is a process that never ends. Thus,

persistence is an important trait for the salesperson to possess

(Duran, 2004). The same is now true of politicians, as political

campaigning, in most countries, is now seen as perpetual,

where elections serve to mark the ending of one campaign and

the beginning of another (Polsby et al., 2012).

While some people may feel politicians are rarely seen out-

side of election time, the interviewees presented an under-

standing of the need to remain in contact with the electorate on

a personal level to achieve a presence in their consciousness.

Barrett and Andrews commented on the long campaigning cy-

cle developing in Ireland, as opposed to the “three week elec-

D. Ó MEARÁIN ET AL.

tion campaign” that Barrett experienced in the early 1980s.

According to Andrews, the regularity of the five year general

election cycle since 1992 has meant candidates are effectively

involved in what Blumenthal’s (1982) refers to as the “perpet-

ual campaign”, as they have a greater degree of certainty when

the next election is to be held. Gilmore observed that the next

election campaign begins the day a candidate is elected. While

political marketing was once episodic, it is now a constant for

political actors (Henneberg & O’Shaughnessy, 2007). Thus,

politicians need to be perpetually active in their constituencies

and by so doing are perpetually campaigning for their next

election bid.

This creates a situation where on the one hand constituents

have more expectation of, and place greater demands upon,

candidates; while candidates must have a longer term approach

to campaigning and working with the electorate. Andrews said

that he was always “out and about” seeking to “build relation-

ships” with constituents. He recognized that the number of citi-

zens encountered in a clinic was relatively small—a limitation

in terms of overall campaign exposure. Gilmore observed that,

in the context of the long campaign, the candidate has to adopt

a long term view of building relationships with constituents and

be persistent in that approach. The importance of relationships

to political marketing was recognized by Gronroos (1998) when

he conceptualized political marketing as existing within an

overarching paradigm of relationship marketing. Barrett de-

scribed this activity as “selling yourself”. This is consistent

with Saxe and Weitz’s (1982) argument that relationship selling

arises when the needs of customers are particularly complex

and in response the salesperson becomes focused upon the cus-

tomer.

Andrews admitted there is little point in a candidate present-

ing themselves to the public in the run up to an election if they

have not been in the constituency dealing with citizens’ com-

plaints over the preceding years. He observed “people aren’t

stupid, for all the campaign smarts you may have and how

clever you are at the door, people know they haven’t seen you

in five years”. This fits with Dean & Croft’s (2001) argument

that political campaigning should be focused on building life-

time relationships with voters. Barrett said that he was never

more than 24 hours away from a face to face meeting with any

constituent.

All interviewees recognized building relationships by solving

problems was critical. Hannifin said working for constituents

was a positive experience that connected her to the electorate.

She also recognized the potential payoff such work generated in

terms of kudos. Andrews considered such close interaction vital

to enable a candidate preempt constituents’ needs. This desire,

to be ahead of constituents, is something all interviewee’s

wanted to achieve—they feared missing out upon important

local issues.

The result of this continuous unofficial campaigning is that

when the election campaign proper begins the interviewees

seemed to treat it as a short period during which they simply

intensify what they are already doing. Election canvassing sim-

ply involves more advertising, leafleting, and knocking on

doors. The criteria associated with relationship selling are evi-

dent in the candidates’ perceptions of how persistently seeking

to build relationships is critical in politics.

Conclusion

In the literature, the most important traits associated with

salespeople are integrity and trustworthiness, a strong ego, em-

pathy, positioning and communicating persuasively and persis-

tence. The ability to build trust with customers is vital. A strong

ego is crucial for a salesperson, as otherwise they might give up.

Empathy is essential in developing trust. Positioning and com-

municating persuasively allows salespeople to create a good

first impression and establish interaction. Persistence is neces-

sary as the business of selling never ends. Yet, these traits are

not exclusive to salespeople—they are to be found in the inter-

views conducted with the five candidates in the Dún Laoghaire

constituency in the 2007 Irish general election.

Trust and integrity are crucial in the political environment.

The public needs to know that its representatives will honor

their commitments and stay loyal to their values, while looking

after the public’s interests and not harming us. Relationships

between salespeople and prospects and between politicians and

voters hinge on a level of trust being established and main-

tained. But, while salespeople are opportunistic by nature and

as a result tend to be inconsistent, a politician cannot be incon-

sistent lest they be accused of flip-flopping on an issue and

eroding the electorate’s trust. Thus, building trust can help poli-

ticians suppress the more opportunistic urges to which they are

sometimes prone. However, being trusted and being popular are

two different things for a politician and most interviewees ad-

mitted they had to be willing to make unpopular decisions. This

is the opposite of opportunism associated with salespeople.

Nevertheless, the interviewees were convinced that in taking

hard decision they earn the electorate’s respect and long term

trust.

All interviewees felt empathy was a vital trait for a politician

to possess, as it enables them to engage with constituents. The

same is true in sales, as the ability to empathize with the pros-

pect can help in the selling process. Empathy permits us be

sensitive to others’ needs and as such, is a trait central to build-

ing relationships and trust. Emphatic listening was something

interviewees considered vital in allowing them to connect with

constituents.

Ego strength, strong self belief, allows people to maintain

emotional stability and handle stresses life throws at them. If a

salesperson had little ego strength then failure might erode their

self confidence and ultimately discourage them from continuing

to try to sell. This was the third trait the interviewees recog-

nized as necessary for a politician. The ability to bounce back

from defeats is critical in politics, as otherwise one’s self con-

fidence will be ground down. One needs to have high levels of

confidence in oneself to recover from such setbacks. Barrett

disliked the stresses elections brought and how they laid failure

bare for everyone to see, but he has remained in politics for

decades. Regan accepted that failure was part of politics, while

Hanafin was very philosophical on earlier setbacks, now re-

garding them as va l uable experiences.

Positioning and being able to communicate persuasively are

important traits for the salesperson. But, they are equally of

value in politics. The politicians interviewed seek to position

themselves in relation to their constituents’ needs and their

parties’ policies. The candidates formulate their policies

through a combination of their parties’ market research and

their own findings from interacting with constituents. Some-

times, this can create a difficult middle ground for the politi-

cians to negotiate, as the party wants its candidates to preach a

message that constituents might not be interested in listening to

—such as FG warnings of a looming economic crisis facing

180

D. Ó MEARÁIN ET AL.

Ireland in 2007 when everything still seemed fine. Such a find-

ing in the political sphere reflects the broader tensions evident

in the commercial sphere where central marketing approaches

can be at odds with local sales approaches. The domain of what

constitutes “marketing” remains a contested space. Hanafin felt

presentation was important for a politician—as how they pre-

sent themselves shapes the impression created and the position

they occupy in the voters’ mind.

Sales are a perpetual business where persistence is all impor-

tant. The same is true of politics with the advent of the perma-

nent campaign. All candidates interviewed recognized that

there is a continuous political campaigning cycle that begins at

the end of an election. The interviewees felt it necessary to

always be in contact with constituents, to be active in the con-

stituency and by this means to build relationships with voters.

They saw themselves as always campaigning for the next elec-

tion. However, this development, along with the PRSTV voting

system, has a down side. It contributes to TDs preoccupation

with constituency service to the detriment of their role as na-

tional legislators, as well as the problem that electoral competi-

tion in Ireland is based upon services to the community, as

opposed to policy differences.

Trust and integrity, empathy, ego strength, positioning and

communicating persuasively, and finally persistence—the traits

associated with salespeople—were regarded as critically im-

portant by the candidates interviewed. However, politicians’

commitment to the behaviours associated with these traits runs

deeper than the importance they are given in sales. A politician,

especially an incumbent, cannot afford to break the public’s

trust under any circumstances, as such a breach, for whatever

reason, creates an inconsistency in the public’s mind that could

end their careers. The need for empathy is vital as the politician

needs to be compassionate to the range of issues constituents

present. The politician needs to have large reserves of ego

strength, as they have to be able to recover from setbacks, in-

cluding election defeats. Politician must know instinctively

how to position themselves and be able to communicate in a

persuasive manner. And finally, persistence is vial in politics.

These findings highlight how the most important traits asso-

ciated with salespeople manifested themselves in the behaviors

of the politicians interviewed. Just as political parties have

looked to the marketing industry for leadership in developing

political marketing, politicians have adopted traits similar to

those working in sales. A strong point of the findings is the

in-depth nature of the interviews—providing an insight into the

interviewees’ traits. However, a weakness of the approach is

also its qualitative nature (the authors only spoke with 5 candi-

dates) and as a result the findings cannot be extrapolated to

other candidates.

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