Advances in Internet of Things, 2013, 3, 53-65
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ait.2013.34008 Published Online October 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ait)
iPhone Independent Real Time Localization System
Research and Its Healthcare Application
Xintong Lu1, Wei Liu2, Yongliang Guan1
1EEE, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore City, Singapore
2Singapore Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Singapore City, Singapore
Email: xlu008@e.ntu.edu.sg, wliu@simtech.a-star.edu.sg, EYLGUAN@ntu.edu.sg
Received March 10, 2013; revised April 30, 2013; accepted May 15, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Xintong Lu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
This project studied several popular localization algorithms on iPhone and, according to the demands, specifically de-
signed it to improve healthcare IT system in hospitals. The challenge of this project was to realize the different local-
ization systems on iPhone and to make balance between its response time and localization accuracy. We implemented
three popular localization algorithms, namely nearest neighbor (NN), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), and probability phase,
and we compared their performance on iPhone. Furthermore, we also implemented a real-time localization system using
the ZigBee technology on iPhone. Thus, the whole system could realize not only self-localization but also oth-
ers-localization. To fulfill the healthcare needs, we developed an application, which can be used to improve the hospital
IT, system. The whole project included three phases. The first phase was to localize iPhone’s position using the re-
ceived WiFi signal by iPhone, compare and optimize their performances. During the second phase, we implemented a
ZigBee RFID localization system and combined it with the WiFi system. Finally, we combined new features of the sys-
tem with a healthcare IT system. We believe that this application on iPhone can be a useful and advanced application in
hospitals.
Keywords: iPhone; RTLS; WiFi; Healthcare
1. Introduction
In healthcare industry, there is a trend to decrease the
doctors’ workload using advanced IT technology. With
the development of technology, the healthcare technol-
ogy in hospitals is more and more advanced and efficient.
During daily ward round of doctor, it is quite inconve-
nient for doctors to check every patient’s cases, espe-
cially if there are lots of patients in one hospital. Tradi-
tional way to cope with it was that doctors had to memo-
rize all cases of different patients or brought case files
with themselves. Nowadays, many hospitals have used e-
commerce, which will import patient cases into hospital
system or even national health care system to help doc-
tors to check patient history cases easily. By connection
with this system, we can also simplify the process of
ward round of doctor by our localization system. Fur-
thermore, tracking patients’ location and behavior is also
useful for doctors. According to recent statistics of Mid-
land psychiatric ward, more than 1000 mentally ill pa-
tients have escaped from the wards in the last three years,
which is proved that tracking patient is a significant
technology in hospitals. Finally, this localization applica-
tion can also supply a function of indoor navigation to
patients. No one can deny that finding a right way in an
unfamiliar hospital is a tough task, especially for patients.
Hence, if a mobile application can guide them to right
area, it will help them save time. In our application, we
developed a sub-application for patients with iPhone
compass module to realize indoor navigation.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) [1] is a widely
used technology in bank business field, security field and
short distance communication field. The basic compo-
nents of RFID system are tags, readers and application
software. RFID readers can detect and read the data,
which is emitted from tags through a defined radio fre-
quency and protocol. Tags can be divided into two types:
passive tags and active tags. For passive tags, they will
not emit a signal by themselves. Instead, they generate a
response by the power of reader’s signal. It has both pros
and cons. Obviously, it is energy-free, thus enabling tags
to be used in a long term and making tags portable. How-
ever, the transmission range is only about 10 m to 5 me-
ters. Alternatively, active RFID tags will transmit signal
C
opyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
54
actively. They have a longer working range, which will
arrive at tens of meters. In our ZigBee localization sys-
tem, we use active tags. The reason of it is that not only
long-range but also more accurate localization than pas-
sive tags can be achieved.
Localization system has many ways to be implemented,
such as Global Positioning System (GPS), cellular (A-
GPS) and etc. GPS provides information of users’ loca-
tion and time anywhere on earth. This system contains 24
localization satellites. Thus it can provide a satisfied ser-
vice outdoors. But this above way has a limitation,
though they are efficiently used in outdoors, they cannot
contribute to indoors localization accuracy. Nowadays,
existing methods for indoor localization are LAND-
MARC, RADAR, Cricket Location Support System, An-
gle of arrival, Time of arrival and Fingerprinting algo-
rithm [2,3]. In this paper, because of iPhone limitation,
we choose fingerprinting algorithm utilizing WiFi signal.
WiFi signal indoors localization is a popular technology.
For the reason that more and more mobile devices con-
tain WiFi function, there is no extra-device needed to
realize self-localization.
This paper focuses on independent indoor localization
system implemented on iPhone and performance com-
parison of different algorithms and its healthcare applica-
tion. The advantage of independent localization system is
that we needn’t have to connect to an AP to access a
server. That means even we don’t know the password of
the WiFi signals, we still can use them to do localization.
Section 2 discusses the implementation procedure and
two systems structure. Section 3 provides the algorithm
explanation and performance analysis among different
algorithms and different systems. Section 4 introduces
the application about healthcare and method of imple-
mentation. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper briefly.
2. Implementation
2.1. Complete Structure of Our Prototype
Figure 1 shows the complete structure of the doctor’s
application. As we can see from the flow diagram, there
are three main functions in this application: self-local-
ization, patient localization, ward round application. Be-
cause this application has to use WiFi module of iPhone,
it is mandatory to turn on WiFi before the application
operation. There are two localization systems in this ap-
plication: WiFi localization system and ZigBee localiza-
tion system.
2.2. WiFi Localization System
For the WiFi system, we use SDK Xcode to program an
application in iPhone to scan WiFi signal periodically. In
fact, obtaining and scanning RSSI values in iPhone is
proved to be a tough task [4,5]. Because Apple company
Figure 1. Overall architecture.
has stopped disclosing its public APIs for obtaining the
network’s information. One possible way to get current
RSSI value is put all APs into monitor mode. It will send
signal with RSSI strength according our programming.
But the obvious drawback of this method is that all APs
cannot connect to the Internet, which means that these
APs just provide localization function. In our system, we
have found a way to solve this problem. Instead of using
monitor mode APs, we install the application in root
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL. 55
folder of iPhone operation system, which makes it can
use iPhone private API. By using this way, it simplifies
the APs configuration. However the disadvantage is that
this software must be setup by trained people.
Before we use the WiFi-localization, we should exe-
cute calibration phase. In calibration phase, iPhone will
detect surrounding WiFi signal to record them as offline
data. In online phase, according different algorithms,
iPhone will execute different methods to compute the
current location by comparison of recorded statistics.
2.3. ZigBee Localization System
Figure 2 shows the structure of ZigBee localization sys-
tem. The main components of this system are: 1) Asset
tags; 2) Sensors of fixed location; 3) Base station which
will receive data from sensors; 4) Database.
It contains two parts: hardware and software.
In this project, CC2530 evaluation modules are em-
ployed as tag and readers and CC2531 USB dongle is
used as base station to transmit information captured
from readers to PC (Figure 3). Furthermore, serial port
connection plays a key role in hardware part. It takes
charges of transmit received statistics to database.
Figure 2. ZigBee system architecture.
Figure 3. CC2530.
In software part, C# and Microsoft SQL are used in
programming. The localization algorithm of this system
is described as follow. It is a classified as a range-free
localization algorithm. The sensors with fixed location
will detect whether there is a tag in their detection
zone.When multiple location sensors can scan a same tag,
the maximum RSSI value received by the location sensor
is used to determine the detection zone.
Calibration phase, as mentioned previously, makes use
of comparison between recorded map and current value.
Because of unstable asset tag measured result, a prob-
ability method is adopted.
3. Algorithms and Experiment
3.1. WiFi Localization System [6,7]
Since this paper focuses on WiFi localization application
on iPhone, this section will compare and analyze the
performance of different localization algorithm on
iPhone. We will also briefly introduce the ZigBee local-
ization system in the second part of this section. In this
project, the WiFi system uses three different algorithms:
nearest neighbor, K-nearest neighbor, probability.
We did experiment in a lab. The floor plan was plotted
in Figure 4. As we can see, there are three main APs in
this lab. But we still could scan more than five WiFi sig-
nals, which also could be used to localization. For WiFi
Figure 4. Floor plan.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
56
localization phase, we don’t have to know the WiFi
password. As long as we can scan the signal, we can use
it. According our experience, the more APs the more
accurate. Hence, in WiFi phase, if we want to continue to
improve the accuracy, we just simply increase the num-
ber of main APs instead of changing the algorithm.
Offline phase based on IEEE 11 channel model: In the
calibration phase, a radio map of the environment is cre-
ated. A radio map is a database of locations throughout
the environment with RSSI value, MAC address, channel
number and SSID. The process of producing a radio map
based on actual measurements is not only labor-intensive
and costly but also very sensitive to changes in the envi-
ronment and possible effects of interference in the build-
ing. Using IEEE 802.11 channel model can be a simple
alternative way to create a radio map.
To provide a better presentation of our environment,
we have used IEEE 802.11 channel model in model C.
The received power in IEEE 802.11 channel model is
represented by (1).


RSSdPtL dfd 
(1)
where, Pt is the transmitting power, d is the distance be-
tween the sender and receiver. The f(a) stands for all
kinds of fading. In this situation, the main fading is the
shadow fading process which given by (2) and (3) re-
spectively,
 
01
10 log10Ld Lad d dBP
 
01 10210
10 log10log
BP
d
Ld Ladad



d dBP (2)
 

2
11 0,σfd fdN

 
(3)
where, L0: the path loss at reference distance. d
BP: the
breakpoint distance in meters (1 m). a
1: is the power-
distance gradient before the breakpoint. a2: is the power-
distance gradient after the breakpoint. σ: standard devia-
tion. ρ: a correlation coefficient.
Nearest neighbor algorithm: This is the simplest algo-
rithm, which will release utilization of iPhone CPU. For
experiment, we draw a floor plan in iPhone. Meanwhile,
to execute the offline phase, we design nine points in the
floor plan to record the WiFi signal strength (RSSI value),
MAC address of APs, sequence number of channel and
SSID of APs for calibration and story it into iPhone de-
fault database, which will automatically exist in the
software when users download their software and never
missing.
When the software runs the nearest neighbor algorithm,
it follows below equation:
 

2
22
112 2nn
dssSSssSSssSS
where ssn is current RSSI value of nth AP. SSn is calibra-
tion recorded RSSI value of nth AP.
After all of distance is computed, it will choose the
highest value of Euclidian distance as its position and
map it.
K-nearest neighbors algorithm: To improve the per-
formance and accuracy of NN algorithm, the common
way is using KNN. Instead of using all of RSSI value,
KNN algorithm chooses K samples of Euclidian distance
which are defined by follow equation:

1
N
ii
j
Ess

i
SS
(4)
After sorting the calculated Ei, K data samples with
smaller Euclidian distance are picked up as K nearest
neighbors. K is usually an integer number between 1 and
N samples. To map the position, the position with small-
est Euclidian distance will be selected as the final posi-
tion.
Probability algorithm: Unlike NN and KNN, probabil-
ity depends on the probability of RSSI value [8]. Because
we try to complete all of calculation in iPhone, it is in-
convenient to implement the probability algorithm we
used in ZigBee localization system, which will increase
the load of CPU of iPhone and affect the real time local-
ization ability. In this WiFi localization system, we try to
use a simple probability algorithm.
When we do the training method, we can record mul-
tiple times RSSI value for every WiFi signal. Then, when
users try to use the application, it will scan current WiFi
signal strength to check the probability that there is a
same value in recorded data. The position with the high-
est sum of probability will be mapped in the screen.
Experiment measurement and result: We have done 20
times test at 9 positions for every phase. Then we calcu-
late the error of every time and time-consumption. Then
we plot the CDF (Cumulative Distribution Function).
Error:
 
22
actual testactualtest
errorcmxx yy
(5)
According above Table 1 and Figures 5 and 6, we can
conclude:
1) NN is the simplest way to localize, but it has the
worst performance.
2) KNN and probability phase have similar perform-
ance.
3) This localization system owns better accuracy in the
area which is far from wall especially for KNN. Because
in position 4 and 7 of KNN, the accuracy of 20 times test
can reach perfection.
4) Compared with NN and KNN, the probability phase
is the highest complex, which means that it needs much
more time consumption.
5) Though KNN just calculate K nearest neighbor, but
it still costs more time than NN phase because of the
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL. 57
Table 1. Error distance.
NN KNN Probability
1 568.501 244.566 234.078
2 438.353 443.194 263.309
3 510 502.209 553.559
4 403.5 0 39
5 80.077 256.040 267.622
6 168 474.141 341.941
7 622.383 0 187.5
8 418.373 143.012 305.273
9 168 382.5 157.5
Average
error
distance
375.242 224.566 345.078
Average
time
consumption
1805 ms 1871 ms 3826 ms
Figure 5. Position error distributions.
sorting process.
6) According the Figure 6, probability phase has bet-
ter performance than others. More than 50% localization
points have no error. However, NN phase has the worst
error statistics. More than 50% localization points have
above 400 cm error distance.
7) For the health care system, since we are focusing on
not only the accuracy and but real-time feature, we select
KNN as our application phase.
Although the test result was good, we still can find that
the position of current location may jump to other places
Figure 6. Error distance CDF.
instantaneously, which has bad performance. Thus, to
improve the accuracy, we added a filter to the last result.
As the above introduction, the RSSI value may be af-
fected by change of circumstance. For instance, if there
are many people around the receiver, the RSSI value can
change dramatically. According our test, the received
RSSI can have 10 dB differences at a same position.
Hence, to solve this problem, we store the last several
times results as a reference statistics. If the final result is
different from the previous data, we should make a deci-
sion whether the position should be changed. The logic
of the filter is following the diagram Figure 7.
Furthermore, to reduce the chance that the display of
the position will jump a large-scale distance, we intro-
duced a small-scale jump phase. Instead of jumping to
the destination point directly, in our system, the position
will just move to the inferred point with smaller dis-
tance.Because, in our system, the calibration points in the
radio map have 397.5 centimeters distance. Although
walking speed is various depending on the height, weight,
age, terrain, surface, load and so on. The average speed is
5 kilometers per hour, or about 1.3 meters per second. So,
imagining a person is walking in our experimental cir-
cumstance, the average variation is almost one third of
distance of changing.
Inferred Position=Original Position
Distance Difference
+3
(6)
where, Distance Difference is the distance between last
position and current measured position.
Thus, we can track the moving of inferred position.
From the above analysis, we know that the probability
phase has better performance for the reason that it uses
more record statistics. Thus, to improve the NN, KNN
performance, we change the calibration phase. Instead of
recording the data directly, we adopt a method that it
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
58
Figure 7. Logic of filter.
scans the WiFi signal n times and calculate the average
RSSI value. In this way, it will avoid the break changing
of RSSI value. Meanwhile, to reduce the effect of the
direction of devices, we can scan the multi-direction in
calibrationphase. When we do the calibration, the user
should go round in the position to collect all the statistics
of multi-direction.
Because we have found that the probability phase has
obvious delay. Hence, we just implement above filters
and phases in NN and KNN.
Then, we did the calibration phase and tested the error
distance again just like the previous one. The final ex-
perimental resultis as follow:
From the final experimental result (Table 2, Figures 8
and 9), we can see that the average error distance of
KNN can be reduced to 123.7 cm by mentioned filters
and phases. The time consumption will increase a little
from 1871 cm to 1925 ms. In addition, because the posi-
tion will move small distance every time when the cur-
rent position is different from the previous one, the
number of small error distance increases. We can see this
phenomenon from Figure 9. However, the performance
of NN and KNN with filters gets improvement. From
Figure 9, the performance of NN with filters is even bet-
ter than the performance of probability without filters. It
also shows that more than 90 percent of KNN inferred
positions with filters have error distance less than 3 meters.
The reason why filters can improve the accuracy is
that it filters unstable statistics in the radio map. Hence
less unexpected jump happens. In addition, the step filter
measures the position according human move, which can
reduce the large-scale jump.
There are still two factors we can explore their rela-
tionships with performance, which are the K value of
KNN and the number of sampling points.
Table 2. Error distance with filter.
Error distance
Position Index NN KNN
1 329 77
2 214 129
3 251 62
4 480 56
5 270 268
6 77 23
7 416 76
8 91 293
9 49 128
Average error
distance 242 124
Average time
consumption 1845 ms 1925 ms
Figure 8. Position index.
Figure 9. Error distance CDF.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL. 59
We tested 9 sampling points’ case, and got the statis-
tics: From Table 3 and Figure 10, we can know that the
K = 4 is the best algorithm for localization in 9 sampling
points’ case. Furthermore we can find the average time
consumption will increase withthe value of K.
Next, for 16 sampling points’ measurement, we got the
experimental statistics as follow: From Table 4 and Fig-
ure 11, we can easily find that K = 4 is more accurate
than others. What’s more, the time consumption still fol-
lows the law we got in 9 sampling points. And we also
can find that the 16 sampling points will cost more time
than 9 sampling locations case.
Finally, we tested the 25 sampling points, which is
much more complex than others (Table 5).We plotted
the average error distance at every location:
From Figure 12 and Ta ble 5, we find that the result is
different from the earlier two cases. K = 5 has the best
result. The reason of this is that the 5th signal is station-
ary at the time of the experiment. Furthermore, 25 sam
pling points case will be sensitive to any small variation,
so K = 4 cannot be as good as 16 sampling points case
and 9 sampling points.
From all these 9 tests, we can get the following con-
clusions:
KNN with K = 4 has better result than others generally.
16 sampling points is the best situation.
9 sampling points’ case and 25 sampling points’ case
have similar performance in average error distance,
Table 3. 9 sampling test statistics.
Error distance
K = 3 K = 4 K = 5
The Worst Error
Distance 379 293 587
Average Error
Distance 170 124 186
Average time
consumption 1806 ms 1925 ms 1931 ms
Figure 10. Average error distance at every location for 9
sampling points.
Table 4. 16 sampling points test statistics for 9 sampling
points.
Error distance
K = 3 K = 4 K = 5
The Worst Error
Distance 304 256 244
Average Error
Distance 134 107 139
Average time
consumption 1810 ms 1937 ms 1944 ms
Figure 11. Average error distance at every location for 16
sampling points.
Table 5. 25 sampling test statistics.
Error distance
K = 3 K = 4 K = 5
The Worst Error
Distance 482 475 340
Average Error
Distance 183 179 158
Average time
consumption 1891 ms 1971 ms 2663 ms
which are worse than 16 sampling points. Although 25
sampling points is more complex, but the statistical si-
milarity is too high to get accurate result.
K = 3 has the least time-consumption, because after
selecting k minimum error distance, it only uses the 3
minimum error distance to localize.
For time consumption, 9 sampling points < 16 sam-
pling points < 25 sampling points. The reason for this
phenomenon is that, for 9 sampling points’ case, it only
calculates the distance between current location and 9
recording calibration locations. But for 25 sampling
points, it has to compare with 25 recording calibration
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
60
Figure 12. Average error distance at every location for 25
sampling points.
locations (Figure 13).
We can also find that the bottom points have better
accurate than others. The bottom points mean that the
measured points near the bottom line of the floor plan.
The reason of this result is that around the bottom line
there are two APs, which can localize the location accu-
rately. At the top of the floor plan there is only one AP.
The system hardly finds the accurate location. To im-
prove the accuracy of this experimental circumstance, we
should add one AP at the top line of the floor plan.
16 sampling points KNN algorithm with K = 4 can
achieve 107 cm error distance accuracy.
To research the relationship between the K value of
KNN and its localization performance, we tested three
situations with K = 3, K = 4, K = 5, and plotted their per-
formance. According to previous literature, the K value
depends on the algorithm, the measurement method and
circumstance. We plotted the CDF figures of three cases
(Figures 14-16).
From the 9 sampling points, we can know that KNN
with K = 4 is the best algorithm.
From the 16 sampling points, we can know that KNN
with K = 4 is the best algorithm.
From the 25 sampling points, we can know that KNN
with K = 4 has outstanding performance.
According to Figure 14-16, we can get the conclusion:
Totally, K = 4 has better performance than others. Be-
cause, in our experimental circumstance, there are four
major routers, they can provide the strong evidence for
localization. For RSSI value, the closer distance between
Figure 13. Time consumption of each situation.
Figure 14. 9 sampling points with different K value.
Figure 15. 16 sampling points with different K value.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL. 61
Figure 16. 25 sampling points with different K values.
APs and receivers, the better stable performance we will
get.
For K = 5 cases, in 25 sampling points, it has better
accuracy than 9 sampling points’ case and 16 sampling
points’ case. Because, in 25 sampling points, neighbor
distance is smaller than others, it protects against small-
scale variation. For the 5th strongest signal, it is not the
major signal. Hence, it will experience lots of reflection,
diffraction and multipath. It also passes several walls and
floors. We can use Ericsson multiple breakpoint model [9]
to estimate the remote APs signal.
In 9 sampling points, the error distance for different K
values is fluctuating. The reason of this phenomenon is
that signal surrounding of sampling points in 9 sampling
points’ case are quite different. And the distance between
points is large. Hence long-distance error can be hap-
pened.
To research the relationship between the sampling
density and its localization accuracy, we also change the
sampling density. Instead of 9 sampling points, we use
16 sampling points and 25 sampling points (Figure 17-
19) Then we compare their performance and get the con-
clusion.
We measured minimum distance between two neigh-
bors in there cases:
We plotted the above three situations in Figure 20.
Then we compared their performance.
From Figure 20 and Table 6, we can know that, for
short-term distance error, 9 sampling points’ case has
better performance than others. For long-term distance
error, 16 sampling points’ case is the best one rather than
25 sampling points’ case.
We can also find the result of Figure 21 is similar with
the previous one. The difference is that in short-term
distance error 16 sampling points’ case has similar per-
formance with 9 sampling points’ case.
Figure 17. 9 sampling points.
Figure 18. 16 sampling locations.
For K = 5 case, we can also find the conclusion. But
the result is clearer than others. In short-term distance
error almost half of result in 9 sampling points is zero
error. But in long-term case, 16 sampling points is bril-
liant.
From Figures 20-22, we can get the conclusion:
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
62
Figure 19. 32 sampling locations.
Figure 20. Different sampling points with K = 3.
Table 6. Minimum neighbors distance.
9 sampling
points
16 sampling
points
25 sampling
points
Minimum distance
between two
neighbors (cm)
330 312 260
9 sampling points has better accuracy or more zero
distance in short-term distance error. As we know, 9
sampling points case has far neighbors. It has slim
chance to skip to their neighbor, because their neighbors
have quite different WiFi circumstance. From minimum
neighbors’ distance table, we have gotten the minimum
distance between two neighbors. For 9 sampling points’
case, the minimum distance is 330 cm, which is larger
than others.
However, 16 sampling points’ case and 25 sampling
points’ case have outstanding accuracy in long-term. For
small probability error, which is long-term distance error,
16 sampling points’ case and 25 sampling points case
have common feature that they can protect against the
happen of long-term distance error. The reason of this
phenomenon is that, for these two cases, they have closer
neighbor than 9 sampling points’ case. Even if the meas-
ured signal strength is quite different from the calibration
strength, it can also find near neighbor to localize.
16 sampling points’ case is more accurate than 25
sampling points. For 25 sampling points, the minimum
neighbors distance is too little to localize correctly. The
relevant coherency of signal strength between neighbors
Figure 21. Different sampling points with K = 4.
Figure 22. Different sampling points with K = 5.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL. 63
affects its performance. We have already known that,
even in same situation, the received strength of same
signal source will be different. The range of that is ±10
dB. So for 25 sampling points, it has large probability to
skip to its neighbor locations.
To find the optimization, we plotted overall CDF fig-
ure (Figure 23).
We can find the 16 sampling points KNN with K = 4
is the best algorithm. To find the optical number of cali-
bration points, we can find the average area for each point.
Our experimental lab is 1560 cm × 1620 cm =
2,527,200 cm2. Hence, for each point of 16 sampling
points case, we separate the room into 16 areas. Each
point covers 2,527,200 ÷ 16 = 157,950 cm2 = 15.795 m2.
So we can get the conclusion that, to install localization
system like our experimental circumstance, each separated
area should cover about 16 m2 and do calibration phase.
For value of K, we can get conclusion that the number
of K value should be equal to the major APs you have.
This system has two subsystems: doctor’s subsystem
and patient’s subsystem.
For patient’s subsystem, because this system is used as
self-localization and self-navigation, as users, they can
clearly tell the small distance error and subjectively tell
which is the correct location. We just care about long-
term distance error. From Figure 23, we can know 16
sampling points KNN algorithm with K = 4 is the best
one. We will adopt this method in our healthcare applica-
tion in chapter V.
For doctor’s subsystem, because it is used as ward
round case filter, it should be very accurate in small-term
distance and of high-resolution ratio to tell the difference
form patient to patient. Thus we selected 25 sampling
points with K = 4 as the algorithm.
Since there are lots of other future functions of this
application, we can select different algorithm according
to the requirement of the application.
3.2. ZigBee Localization System [10]
In the ZigBee localization system, we used Improved
Bayesian probability radio map algorithm. Because we
did this in the server, we needn’t care more about the
complexity of the algorithm. Thus, improving the accu-
racy is the target.
We assume that the value received by every location
sensor belongs Gaussian Distribution. The equation for
mean and deviation is shown below:
1
μ
n
i
i
x
n
(7)

2
1μ
σ
n
i
ix
n
(8)
 
2
2
1e2σ
σ2π
x
fx
(9)
where xi is an RSSI value; μ is the mean value of sample
RSSI value σ is the standard deviation of sample RSSI
value.
According the Gaussian Distribution, when the base
station receives a RSSI packet, it can compute the prob-
ability of current value in each location sensor. Finally
the position with highest probability will be assigned to
the final position.
Improved Bayesian Probability Radio Map Algorithm
[10]:
The probabilistic approach for radio map algorithm
can be realized by using the concept of, conditional
probability, Bayes theorem (Figure 24). The formula
used for computing the likelihood for each position of the
asset tag is shown below:




ii
in
jj
j
PBAPA
PAB
PBAPA
(10)
where: N is the number of location points of the radio
map; P(Ai) is the probability that the object is at the par-
ticular point I; P(BAj) is the probability that the particu-
lar RSSI value B is received at a particular point I;
P(AiB) is the probability that the object is in a particular
point I given the received RSSI value B.
Figure 23. Overall performance.
Figure 24. Block diagram of improved bayesian probability
radio map algorithm.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
64
When the reader received the RSSI value, it would
first convert the values into a probability value for each
calibration point using “probabilistic map”. A “condi-
tional probability map” could then be calculated by using
the probability values from the previous step. A condi-
tional probability map contained probability that the asset
tag would be for each calibrated point shown below. The
position of the highest probability would be deemed as
the position of the object.
Position Inference Algorithm: The algorithm would
take into consideration a number of calibration points
that locate near the test point, instead of just the nearest
calibration point, during computation shown below. It
was based on the assumption that points, which were
located close together, had relatively similar RSSI signa-
ture values.
The final “inferred” position was then computed in a
function that involved the probability of each points and
distances between the considered points.
To improve the accuracy, we combined the two algo-
rithms. The result of the nine test points has shown in
below table.
According to Table 7, the average error distance is
28.25cm, which is much better than the WiFi system.
4. Healthcare Application
To combine this system with healthcare application, we
must find the demands. It is common for doctors to carry
patient’s case during daily ward round. So our target is to
simply the work of doctors. When users click the health-
care button and switch the localization button on, it will
map current self-location and all patients’ location. Fig-
ure 25 Then doctors can click nearby button to view sur-
rounding patients’ list. For instance, when the doctor
stand by the patient A if he is trying to check in the di-
agnosis of patient A. he can press the “nearby” button
and then he can easily find patient A from the nearby list,
nevertheless, patient B who is far from the doctor or even
in another ward will not be listed in the nearby list. (Fig-
ure 26) This will definitely improve the efficiency of
doctors’ work. Furthermore, this application can also
remind doctors which patients have been checked and
which one has not. If the doctor has checked the patient,
the doctor can mark it. It will not display on the screen
until the end of this ward round.
Further more, this application can also develop a
sub-application for patients for indoor navigation. To
help patients to find right direction and right way, we
also use the compass in iPhone, which will help both
doctors and patients to find the direction. Especially, for
patient, who newly come to a hospital. It is quite difficult
for them to find a right place and room to deal with the
hospital issues. For instance, for patients, who should
take X-ray in diagnostic imaging department. But
Table 7. Test results of ZigBee location system.
NOActual PositionMeasured PositionError Distance
(cm)
1(100,350)(100,350)0
2(100,700)(150,760)78.102
3(2,001,150)(2,001,150)0
4(400,140)(400,140)0
5(400,950)(470,980)76.158
6(550,250)(550,250)0
7(55,050)(550,550)0
8(550,800)(550,700)100
9(5,501,050)(5,501,050)0
Figure 25. Doctor’s application.
there are lots of departments in a hospital and there may
be crowded which proves inconvenient for patients. With
this application, nevertheless, patients don’t have to
worry about loss their way in hospitals. It can guide pa-
tients to go to right place. As we can see from the picture,
the array direction is the direction that the patient is fac-
ing.
The other function of this application is to track pa-
tients (Figure 27). For mental disease patients, they need
to be tracked to prevent accidents and escape from hos-
pital. Hence setting some restricted zone is necessary to
alert doctors to their patients’ unusual locations and be-
haviors. In the tracking function, if a patient goes into
restricted area, the application will alert.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
X. T. LU ET AL.
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. AIT
65
Figure 26. Nearby patient’s list.
Figure 27. Navigation function.
5. Conclusion
To be more practical and efficient, the next step is to use
it in hospital to verify its result. Furthermore, to improve
the accuracy, adding more APs is an effective way.
However, it will increase the time delay during localiza-
tion, which will decrease the real-time sensitivity. So we
should find a balance between the accuracy, sensitivity
and complexity of a practical real-time RTLS system.
REFERENCES
[1] L. M. Ni, Y. H. Liu, Y. C. Lau and A. P. Patil, “LAND-
MARC: Indoor Location Sensing Using Active RFID,”
Proceedings of the 1st IEEE International Conference on
Pervasive Computing and Communications, March 2003.
[2] J. Wyffels, J.-P. Goemaere, P. Verhoeve, P. Crombez, B.
Nauwelaers, L. DeStrycker, K. A. H. O. Sint-Lieven, K.
U. Leuven and N. V. Televic, “A Novel Indoor Localiza-
tion System for Healthcare Environments,” International
Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems (CBMS),
2012.
[3] M. Pourhomayoun, Z. P. Jin and M. Fowler, “Spatial
Sparsity Based Indoor Localization in Wireless Sensor
Network for Assistive Healthcare,” IEEE International
Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology So-
ciety (EMBC), 2012.
[4] M. Bharanidharan, X. J. Li, Y. Y. Jin, J. S. Pathmasun-
tharam and G. X. Xiao, “Design and Implementation of a
Real Time Locating System Utilizing WiFi Signals from
iPhones,” IEEE International Conference on Networks
(ICON), 2012.
[5] M. Ali, “iPhone SDK Programming: Developing Mobile
Applications for Apple iPhone and iPod Touch,” Wiley
Press, 2009.
[6] Q. X. Chen; D.-L. Lee and W.-C. Lee, “Rule-Based WiFi
Localization Methods,” IEEE/IFIP International Confer-
ence on Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing, 2008.
[7] T. Bagosi and Z. Baruch, “Indoor Localization by WiFi,”
IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Computer
Communication and Processing (ICCP), 2011.
[8] Effelsberg, “COMPASS: A Probabilistic Indoor Posi-
tioning System Based on 802.11 and Digital Compasses,”
WiNTECH ‘06 Proceedings of the 1st International
Workshop on Wireless Network Testbeds, Experimental
Evaluation & Characterization, 2006, pp. 34-40.
[9] W.-H. Chen, H. H. Chang; T. H. Lin, P. C. Chen, L. K.
Chen, S. J. Hwang, D. H. J. Yen, H. S. Yuan and W. C.
Chu, “Dynamic Indoor Localization Based on Active
RFID for Healthcare Applications: A Shape Constraint
Approach,” International Conference on Biomedical En-
gineering and Informatics (BMEI), 2009.
[10] L. Y. Hao, G. Y. Liang and L. Wei, “Indoor Positioning
system ( Middleware),” Nanyang Technological Univer-
sity, Nanyang, 2012.