Advances in Anthropology 2013. Vol.3, No.3, 121-126 Published Online August 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/aa) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aa.2013.33016 Copyright © 2013 SciRes. 121 Opportunity for the Operation of Natural Selection in a Contemporary Local Population (The Case of Slovincians, Poland) Oskar Nowak1, Grażyna Liczbińska2*, Janusz Piontek1 1Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Anthropology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland 2Department of Human Population Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Anthropology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland Email: oskarn@amu.edu.pl, *grazyna@amu.edu.pl Received February 19th, 2013; revised March 19th, 2013; accepted March 29th, 2013 Copyright © 2013 Oskar Nowak et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In research practice, it is possible to observe natural selection at work by analysing fertility and mortality. Crow’s index takes into account both of these vital statistics components and allows a quantitative esti- mation of the operation of natural selection on the basis of demographic birth and death figures. In this study, we use the classical Crow’s index to determine whether the disintegration of the Slovincian popu- lation in the second half of the 20th century was caused by factors of a biological nature, finally leading to disturbances in the reproductive strategy, or whether it was a result of the impact of many factors of a cultural nature. Use was made of measuring cards for 109 women and 38 men. The sample was divided into two generations: 1st generation, or individuals born up to the year 1900, and 2nd generation—those born after 1900. In this material the opportunity for the operation of natural selection due to differential mortality and differential fertility was rather weak. Both generations of Slovincians were characterized by high fertility, suggesting their non-Malthusian type of reproductive strategy, and decreasing mortality of sexually immatures over time.It seems, therefore, that the loss of ethnic identity by Slovincians and their migration from the home territories was influenced by several factors of a cultural nature rather than their biological distinctness. Keywords: Crow’s Index; Mortality; Fertility; Ecology; Ethnicity; Disintegration Introduction Natural selection is the main factor of the evolutionary pro- cess. This factor still operates in contemporary populations, causing slow gradual evolutionary changes (e.g. Byars et al., 2010; Kosova et al., 2010; Little et al., 1989, 2008; Malina et al., 2008; Prakash & Narayanan, 2009). A measure of the op- eration of natural selection is diversity in the reproductive suc- cess of individuals. In research practice, it is possible to observe natural selection at work on the basis of the analysis of fertility and mortality in populations (Piontek, 1979; Prakash & Nara- yanan, 2009). The index of total selection intensity proposed by Crow (1958) combines both vital-statistics components and allows estimating the intensity of selection by differential mortality and differential fertility. The first component of Crow’s index takes into account only the mortality of individuals who do not reached sexual maturity (Crow, 1958), and determines the pro- portion of children who failed to live to reproductive age to those who attained it. The other component takes into account the opportunity for natural selection due to differential fertility and is estimated by the ratio of the variance of the number of children in complete families (i.e. with wives past their child- bearing age) to the square mean of the number of children in those families (Crow, 1958; Piontek, 1979). The original Crow’s index has seen some modifications. Since it covered mortality at postnatal age only, Johnston and Kensinger (1971) introduced into its formula a correction for prenatal mortality. Brena and Martinez (1986, 1987), in turn, set the interpretation of Crow’s index in an evolutionary context. In anthropology, and in particular in the biology of historical populations (studied on the basis of archival research) and pre- historic populations (studied on the basis of skeletal remains), Crow’s index is a very popular measure. Despite some limita- tions (its Im component does not include the mortality of adults, and the If component takes into account the total number of offspring about which we are not sure whether or not it is regu- lated culturally), it is widely used in research because it allows a quantitative estimation of the operation of natural selection on the basis of the demographic statistics of births and deaths, often collected during anthropological studies (Jorde & Durbize, 1986, Terrenato et al., 1979; Hed, 1984, 1987; Reddy & Chopra, 1990). Spuhler (1963, 1976), for example, analysed the values of Crow’s index for 57 populations of the world and stressed that they varied in different regions as a reflection of their ecologi- cal and cultural conditions. With regard to the populations of the former Soviet Union, a spatial variation of Crow’s index was studied (Bolshakova & Revazov, 1988; Ivanov et al., 1997; *Corresponding author.
O. NOWAK ET AL. Kadoshnikova et al., 1996; Kucher & Soltobaeva, 2004; Kur- batowa et al., 2005; Posukh et al., 1996; Revazov & Bol- shakova, 1984; Startseva et al., 1996). The same was true of the highly endogamous and isolated mountain communities of India (e.g. Dharani et al., 2003; Chanu & Varte, 2009; Lakshmi et al., 2005; Rajanikumari et al., 1985; Reddy et al., 1987, 1990; Varte & Varte, 2006), the Yanomama Indians (Neel & Weiss, 1975), or some European populations, such as Swedish (Hed, 1984, 1987) and Spanish (Alfonso-Sánches et al., 2004; Blanco Villefas & Fuster, 2007; Luna & Moral, 1990). With regard to the populations from the Polish territory, the opportunity for natural selection has been a subject of many studies, both of prehistoric populations as historical ones (e.g. Budnik, 2005; Budnik & Liczbińska, 2006; Budnik & Przy- byszewska, 1991; Budnik et al., 2002, 2004; Berdychowski & Henneberg, 1978; Hennenberg & Piontek, 1975; Henneberg et al., 1977; Liczbińska, 1999, 2009, 2011; Nowak et al., 2011a, 2011b; Piontek, 1979; Piontek & Krenz, 1994; Wrzesińska & Wrzesiński, 2002). In particular, researchers have focused on measures of the opportunity for natural selection by differential mortality, which in prehistoric and historical populations was an excellent reflection of ecological conditions (e.g. Budnik, 2005; Henneberg, 1977; Liczbińska, 2009, 2011; Nowak et al., 2009, 2011a, 2011b; Piontek, 1979; Piontek & Krenz, 1994; Puch, 1993). It is highly interesting to analyse differential fer- tility and differential mortality in indigenous groups which ceased to exist at a certain moment. One of such groups on the contemporary Polish territory was Slovincians, regarded by some scholars and researchers as a subpopulation of Kashubians. In this paper, using the classical Crow’s index, we want to determine whether the disintegration of Slovincians was caused by biological (environmental and adaptive) factors finally lead- ing to disturbances in their reproductive strategy, or if it was perhaps the impact of cultural (and/or political) factors which caused them to lose their ethnic identity and migrate from the home territory. Our study is a contribution to the understanding of the biological history of “small nations” of Europe which accelerates the processes of acculturation and disintegration. Materials and Methods Characteristics of the Slovincians Population From the ethnographic point of view, Slovincians are a dis- tinct ethnic group that used to inhabit the area between Lakes Gardno and Łebsko (Figure 1), from the late 18th century to the early 20th century surrounded by German settlements. Some researchers, for example Witt (1933), argue that in the past Slovincians could stand for a separate tribal group. On the basis of his research conducted in the area of Smołdzino (Fig- ure 1), Witt (1933) claimed that the local Rowokół hills could be the locality of some prehistoric native ethnic group. His opinion was corroborated by archaeological findings. This point of view was also supported by Łęga (1930), who located the Slovincian tribes in Western Pomerania. Linguists have included Slovincians into the ethno-cultural group which was part of the Kashubian population. Studies of the dialects of the Pomeranian language have shown a very close similarity between the Slovincian and Kashubian dialects. Hilferding (1989) and Lorentz (1908-1912) placed Slovincian in the Kashubian language group, and included the population of Slovincians into indigenous Kashubians living in the past on the territory between Lakes Gardno and Łebsko. The village of Kluki (Figure 1), where once lived the majority of Slovincians, was originally established from three separate settlements: Kluki Smołdzińskie, Kluki Żelewskie, and Kluki Ciemińskie. The fragmentary ethnographic research conducted among Slovincians in the 19th century shows that they considered themselves Kashubians of the Protestant denomination, in con- trast to Kashubian Catholics, determined by the synonym of “Poles” (Stelmachowska, 1963). During the period of partitions, there took place a process of denationalization of local territories, causing not only a de- crease in the population of Slovincians, but also a disappear- ance of their dialect. At the end of the 19th century only about 30 villages remained here (Dejna, 1973). After World War II, several hundred Slovincians survived, and in the 1950s a little over a hundred left Pomerania (Filip, 2012; Ostrowska & Tro- janowska, 1978). The meeting of Poles coming from the east with highly Germanized Slovincians demanding from the Pol- ish authorities a permission to leave for Germany, ended in failure. Some of them left Pomerania in the 1950s and 1960s under the “family reunification” programme, and the last out- flow of Slovincians to Germany occurred in the 1970s. At that time 122 people left the above-mentioned village of Kluki, including 57 mixed families. Material Use was made of the material deposited in the archives of the Institute of Anthropology at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. It was collected in the 1950s by Professor Franciszek Wokroj (1958, 1960), who conducted systematic anthropologi- cal studies of populations inhabiting the territory between the rivers Łeba and Gardna Wielka. From the measuring cards containing anthropometric data and the questionnaire, the fol- lowing information was used: date and place of birth of re- spondents, place of residence, number of siblings, number of siblings who died before reaching the age of 14, and total number of children in families. A total of 147 individuals were examined, including 109 women and 38 men. Methods The research material was divided into two generations. A turning point was the year 1900. The first generation encom- passed all individuals born up to 1900, and the second one, those born after 1900. The opportunity for natural selection was calculated using the classical Crow’s index (1958). As is known, this index has two components: an index of opportunity for natural selection through differential mortality Im, and an index of opportunity for natural selection through differential fertility If, and is calculated according to the following formula: mf II I=+ in this formula mds Pd: proportion of offspring deceased before reaching repro- ductive age, which is 14 years; and I=P P, where: Ps: proportion of offspring reaching reproductive age (). sd The second component of Crow’s index measures the opp- ortunity for natural selection through differential fertility If, and is calculated according to the formula: P1P=− f f2 V I= x, where, where Vf is the variance of the number of offspring in complete Copyright © 2013 SciRes. 122
O. NOWAK ET AL. Copyright © 2013 SciRes. 123 ● Szczepanowo ● Kościerzyna ● Kashubians from Hel Kashubians from Pomerania ● ● Colonists from Podkarpacie ● Podbeskidzie villages ● Kl was reflected in the stratification of the values of Crow’s index in favour of rural areas. In the Catholic parish of St. Margaret in the city of Poznań Im was higher than in the villages of Płużnica Wielka and Wielkie Drogi, though it was very high in them too (Liczbińska, 2011; Puch, 1993). In the 1950s and 1960s this trend was reversed (Table 2). Generally speaking, along with the improvement of sanitation, epidemiological conditions and medical care that accompanied Central Europe’s entrance into the second stage of demographic and epidemiological transition, the values of Im index gradually decreased (Table 2). In the populations of the 1980s and 1990s, Im values range from 0.06 to 0.29, which should not be surprising (Table 2; Budnik, 1996; Berdychowski & Henneberg, 1978; Nowak et al., 2011a, 2011b; Bolshakova & Revasov, 1988). The same was true for Slovin- cians: here Im fell by half over two generations because, as was mentioned earlier, the proportion of deceased infants and young children dropped almost by a half (Table 1). uki Płużnica Wielka ● ● Wielkie Drogi igure 1. territories (with the village of Kluki) against the populations milies and x : the square of the arithmetic mean of the num- data drawn from the lite- ra Results and Discussion The values ofl selection int- en able 1. of the number of offspring in complete families, the proportion of deceased, and the values of Crow’s index in the studied population. ds fm f In turn, the index of the opportunity for natural selection by differential fertility proposed by Crow (1958) is the ratio of the variance of the number of children in families to the square mean number of live births. This index does not take into ac- count the fertility of women who die before the end of their reproductive cycle, but only those with a completed reproduc- tion cycle. As was mentioned earlier, the If index does not al- low separating differences in the number of offspring resulting from the genetic background from that culturally modified. In both generations of Slovincians there are no differences in the If value, probably due to the lack of birth control in those groups. Although both generations had some knowledge of birth con- trol methods and agents, they did not use them consciously nor planned the number of children in a family in advance. The same was true in 19th-century Szczepanowo (Henneberg, 1980) as well as Sub-Beskid and Sub-Carpathian villages from the first half of the 20th century (Nowak et al., 2011a, 2011b), Little Poland populations of the 1980s (Budnik & Przy- byszewska, 1991), and Kashubians in the 1990s (Budnik, 1996; Berdychowski & Henneberg, 1978). The European populations from the comparable period presented in Table 2 generally did not differ from Slovincians in terms of the If value, which ranged from 0.28 (agricultural Camprodon; Torrejon & Ber- tranpetit, 1987) to slightly over 0.5 (the rural population of Lanciego; Alfonso-Sanchez et al., 2004). An exception was the Swiss population of the 1960s (Spuhler, 1963). Here the If value exceeded 1. Higher If figures were also noted in the rural population of Pinega (the former Soviet Union; Bolshakova & Revasov, 1988) and in the French populations of the 1960s (Jacquard, 1974) (Table 2). A high value of If in these popula- tions was probably due to differential fertility resulting from the use of the methods and agents of birth control. F Slovincian of historical and contemporary Poland. 2 fa ber of offspring in those families. The results were compared with ture for selected populations of historical and contemporary Poland and Europe. Im, If, and of the index of tota sity calculated for both generations: that born up to 1900 and at the beginning of the 20th century, are presented in Table 1. What is striking is the significant difference in the Im values between the two generations: higher in that born in the 19th century than in the group born after 1900. It was confirmed by the proportion of offspring deceased before reaching reproduc- tive age Pd (d0-14; Table 1). A similar trend was observed at that time in Pomerania (Budnik, 2005; Liczbińska, 1999, 2005). Among individuals born in the late 19th century (1st genera- tion), up to 31% of infants and young children did not live to reproductive age, while in the next generation this proportion fell by half (Table 1). In the 19th century the high mortality rate of children reflected poor environmental conditions and a very low level of medical care. Similarly high values of the Im index were noted in rural populations of historical Polish terri- tories and Europe (Table 2). In the 19th century the value of Crow’s index due to differential mortality ranged from slightly below 1, as in Szczepanowo in Greater Poland (Henneberg, 1980), to much above 1, as in the rural parish of Płużnica Wielka in Silesia (the former Duchy of Prussia; Puch, 1993), or the village of Wielkie Drogi in Little Poland (Puch, 1993; Ta- ble 2). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, infant and child mortality was lower in villages than in urban centres, which Generally speaking, in the studied Slovincians the operation of the opportunity for natural selection as measured by the clas- sical Crow’s index was weak. This applies to both the selection due to differential mortality and due to differential fertility. Slovincians had poor birth control, suggesting a non-Malthu- T Distribution Generation Nx SD P PV x 2 I II 1 6. 6 0 0. 0 st generation32 75 2.78 0.31 0.66 7.932.88.4617.63 2nd generation 116 6.02 2.82 0.17 0.82 7.74 59.90 0.21 0.22 0.43
O. NOWAK ET AL. Table orical and contempory Poland and Europe. Source 2. ow’s index in the popValues of Cr Population Type of population Period Im I f I ulations of histar Maragateria agricultural 1900 0.22 0. 0. Be4780rnis, 1974 Camprodon agricultural 1900 0.04 0,28 0.33 Torrejo87 184 P Subges 1 Now1a Berdyc 1978 Kashsula 189 Alfonso, 2004 Poz ics 0. 0 Bolsha988 Urb ral Sd 190 Bolsha, 1988 n & Bertranpetit, 19 Szczepanowo rural 65-1870.75 0.26 1.01 Henneberg, 1978 łużnica Wielka rural 1765-1899 1.661 0.14 1.80 Puch, 1993 Wielkie Drogi rural 1765-1899 1.311 0.13 1.44 Puch, 1993 -Carpathian villarural sthalf of 20thc. 0.41 0.23 0.64 ak et al., 201 Sub-Beskid colonists rural 20th c. 0.06 0.25 0.31 Nowak et al., 2011b Kościerzyna rural 1970s 0.11 0.25 0.36 howski & Henneberg, Wielkie Drogi rural 1980s 0.15 0.27 0.46 Jóźwiak, 1984 ubians, Hel Peninrural 1990s 0.29 0.09 0.38 Budnik, 1996 Kashubians, Pomerania rural 1990s 0.08 0.17 0.26 Budnik,1996 Lanciego rural 90-1940.22 0.52 0.87 -Sanchez et al. nań, Catholurban 1855-1866 1.96 - - Liczbińska, 2011 Galich urban 1980s 0.10 37 .52kova & Revasov, 1 Sharia urban 1980s 0.11 0.36 0.51 Bolshakova & Revasov, 1988 France an + ru1900 0.26 0.84 1.32 Jacquard, 1974 witzerlan Urban + rural 00-1950.06 1.59 1.65 Spuhler, 1963 Wologoda rural 1980s 0.53 0.35 0.60 kova & Revasov Pinega rural 1980s 0.19 0.82 1.79 Bolshakova & Revasov, 1988 sian nature of their fertility, and a decline in the mortality of In the summary we at the anthropological da E 4) It seems, therefore, that the loss of ethnic identity by Calderon, R., & Peňa J. A. (2004). Opportu- nity for natural selection in a Basque population and its secular trend: evolutionary implicaty. Human Biology, 76, 361-381. doi:10.1353/hu immature individuals over time. Therefore we have no reason to think there was a specific direction in which natural selection operated in the studied population. It rather appears that the main role in the gradual blur of the Slovincian identity and their migration to Germany was played by many factors of a cultural nature, present in the population already before World War I. Conclusion want to stress th ta used in this study were sparse. Therefore the biological dynamics described in this paper could differ slightly from the factual state. In addition, it is worth emphasizing certain limita- tions posed by Crow’s index, which we are aware of. Despite the above reservations, the following conclusions emerge from our study: 1) Slovincians were characterized by high fertility rates and the related poor birth control, which points to the non-Malthu- sian character of this population. 2) In the studied population there was a decrease in infant and child mortality over time reflecting an improvement in ecological conditions and medical care in the region. 3) The total selection intensity was very weak and did not differ from that noted in the other regions of Poland and urope. Slovincians and their migration from the home territories was due to the impact of many factors of a socio-political and an economic nature rather than to their biological distinctness resulting from a gene pool different from that in other areas of Poland and Europe. REFERENCES Alfonso-Sanchez, M. A., ions of epidemic mortalit b.2004.0041 Bernis, C. (1974). Estudio biodemográfico de la población maragata. PhD Dissertation. Madrid: University Complutense. lanco Villegas, M. J., & Fuster, V. (2007). Differential reproductive pattern in a rural Spanish region (La B Cabrera, Leὀn): Consequences for potential natural selection. Annals of Human Biology, 34, 664- 672. doi:10.1080/03014460701654349 Berdychowski, W., & Henneberg, M. (1978). Wstępna ocena stanu biologicznego ludności wiejskiej z okolic Kościerzyny na podstawie wybranych danych o ruchu naturalnym i wędrówkowym. Przegląd Antropologiczny, 44, 53-65. Bolshakova, L. P., & Revasov, A. A. (1988). Heritability of fertility in human populations and the structure of the Crow index. Genetika, 24, 340-349. ena, J. G., & Martinez, C. P.Br (1986, 1987). Relative influence of natural selection and genetic drift, along 104 years, on a population Copyright © 2013 SciRes. 124
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