D.-Y. CHUNG, V. KRASNOHOLOVETS 5
extreme density. The further stellar collapse that in-
creases the density in the phase boundary to the critical
extreme density converts the gamma rays and matter
particles in the phase boundary into super matter parti-
cles that move to the super matter core. The whole con-
version process then starts over again. As a result, the
stellar collapse increases the super matter core, and de-
creases the ordinary matter region.
Eventually, the ordinary matter region becomes small,
and the inward gravity of the ordinary matter region is
too weak to allow the ordinary matter region and the
phase boundary to attach to the super matter core that
repels the phase boundary. The result is the stellar breakup
to detach the phase boundary and the ordinary matter
region from the super matter core. The stellar breakup
starts from the phase boundary that is repelled by the
super matter core. During the stellar breakup, the de-
tached phase boundary and ordinary matter region that
are broken into pieces by the fast-rotation become the
superstar accretion disk (SAD) as the black hole accre-
tion disk (BHAD) in the collapsar model of GRB. With
the additional energy from the gamma rays in the phase
boundary, the SAD contains much higher energy than the
BHAD. As the BHAD, the SAD produces a jet of mate-
rial in the forms of electrons, positrons, and protons to
blast outward at almost the speed of light perpendicularly
to the SAD. The higher energy SAD produces the higher
energy jet than the jet from the BHAD. The higher en-
ergy jet from the SAD produces more gamma rays from
the internal shocks than gamma rays produced from the
jet from the BHAD.
The different parts of the ordinary matter region in a
compact superstar break up nearly simultaneously, so the
GRB duration is short [13], and there is only one light
peak in the light curve. The different parts of the ordinary
region in a large superstar do not break up at the same
time, so the GRB duration is long, more than one light
peak are in the light curve, and different light peaks are
different in intensities and shapes. The short duration
GRBs have the average about 0.3 seconds and the long-
duration GRBs have the average about 30 seconds [14].
The observed high conversion of the explosion energy
into gamma rays in a superstar breakup comes from the
SAD that contains higher energy than the BHAD. For the
light curves of GRBs, the additional complication that is
not in the collapsar model is from the complex stellar
breakup in a pre-superstar. Therefore, the superstar model
of GRB solves the two problems of the collapsar model
of GRB for the high conversion of the explosion energy
into gamma rays and the complex light curves in GRBs.
After the stellar breakup, the remnant is a pure superstar
with only the super matter core. A pure superstar with a
high gravity hinders the emission of light.
For the stellar breakup of a non-rotating superstar, en-
ergies are not focused by the magnetic field of a fast-
rotating superstar. The stellar breakup is similar to a su-
pernova.
For a star with an initial mass of 100 to 130 solar
masses, the stellar core is a medium size gamma ray core
that has a strong outward pressure to stop the stellar col-
lapse and to prevent the formation of the super matter
core. The core collapse by pair instability leads to a ther-
monuclear explosion, but not a runway thermonuclear
explosion. The thermonuclear explosion leads to the ejec-
tion of a part of the ordinary matter region. For a star
with an initial mass of 130 to 250 solar masses, the stel-
lar core is a large size gamma ray core that has a strong
outward pressure to stop the stellar collapse and to pre-
vent the formation of the super matter core. The core col-
lapse by pair instability leads to a runway thermonuclear
explosion, resulting in a hypernova (pair instability su-
pernova) without any star remnant. For a star with an ini-
tial mass of higher than about 250 solar masses, photodis
integration prevents thermonuclear explosion, resulting in
continuing stellar collapse to convert the stellar core into
the super matter core for a supermassive pre-superstar.
From outside, black holes, gravastars, and superstars
look the same. From inside, they are different in terms of
information. An extreme force field that prevents singu-
larity in gravity is an alternative to a gravitational vac-
uum (with the equation of state p = −ρ) in a gravastar. In
a gravastar, a gravitational vacuum is located in one spe-
cific region. In a superstar, extreme force fields are not in
one special region. The phase boundary in superstar is an
alternative to the phase boundary in gravastar for the
phase transition with equation of state p = + ρ between
the interior region and the exterior region (with the equa-
tion of state p = ρ = 0). In a gravastar, in falling matter
that hits the phase boundary is converted into energy by
proton decay, adding to the energy of the space-time va-
cuum within the phase boundary. Some information such
as baryon number conservation is lost during the transi-
tion from the exterior region to the interior region. In a
black hole, all information other than the total mass,
charge, and angular momentum is lost. In a superstar, all
ordinary force fields in the super matter core are recov-
erable under ordinary condition, so no ordinary informa-
tion is lost in a superstar.
Black holes and gravastars lose the information about
ordinary force fields, while superstars keep all informa-
tion about ordinary force fields. Quantum mechanics is
built on the principle that information cannot be lost. Vio-
lating this basic principle of quantum mechanics, black
holes and gravastars do not exist. In compliance with this
basic principle, superstars exist.
6. Summary
It is proposed that the digital space structure consists of
Copyright © 2013 SciRes. JMP
