Int. J. Communications, Network and System Sciences, 2013, 6, 260-276 http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ijcns.2013.65029 Published Online May 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ijcns) Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS All-in-One: Space-Time Body, Function and Metric ─ A Fundamentally New Approach to Computation Hermann von Issendorff Institut für Netzwerkprogrammierung, Hemmoor, Germany Email: hv@issendorff.de Received February 21, 2013; revised April 21, 2013; accepted May 9, 2013 Abstract Every algorithm which can be executed on a computer can at least in principle be realized in hardware, i.e. by a discrete physical system. The problem is that up to now there is no programming language by which physical systems can con- structively be described. Such tool, however, is essential for the compact description and automatic production of com- plex systems. This paper introduces a programming language, called Akton-Algebra, which provides the foundation for the complete description of discrete physical systems. The approach originates from the finding that every discrete physical system reduces to a spatiotemporal topological network of nodes, if the functional and metric properties are deleted. A next finding is that there exists a homeomorphism between the topological network and a sequence of sym- bols representing a program by which the original nodal network can be reconstructed. Providing Akton-Algebra with functionality turns it into a flow-controlled general data processing language, which by introducing clock control and addressing can be further transformed into a classical programming language. Providing Akton-Algebra with metrics, i.e. the shape and size of the components, turns it into a novel hardware system construction language. Keywords: Topological space, Dataflow Machine, Many-Sorted Logic, DNA Programming, Layout Simplification 1. Introduction Living nature demonstrates how to program discrete spa- tiotemporal systems: It generates chains of amino acids from genetic code [1]. In a suitable environment the chain of amino acids then folds to a protein, i.e. a one- dimensional formation mutates into a three-dimensional one. The transaction can be reversed by changing the environment. This shows that there is a bijective and bicontinuous mapping between the chain of amino acids and the protein, called homeomorphism [2]. With other words: The chain of amino acids represents a program which contains the complete spatial information of the protein. The spatial structure of the protein arises from additional weaker binding forces between the amino ac- ids. By external impact, e.g. by adsorption of another molecule, the structure of the protein may change into another metastable state. With other words: A protein has the ability to store and process information. Discrete physical systems usually are a composition of a set of three-dimensional material components or any abstraction thereof. If the components are active, i.e. if they produce physical objects or evaluate functions, then they are temporally directed and are activated in a partial temporal order. If the components are static, then they can be assigned a partial assembling order which also induces a temporal direction. Abstracting a discrete physical system, for instance a computer, from its metrics, i.e. from the spatial measures of its components, the residue is a three-dimensional directed network of the executable functions which are realized by the components. Abstracting a discrete system, for instance again a computer, from its functionality, the residue is a three- dimensional directed network of building blocks which have the size and shape of the system components. Ab- stracting a discrete system from the metrics and the func- tionality at the same time, the residue is a directed net- work of nodes showing their dependencies. There, any two nodes may be related or not, and each node may be related to any finite number of preceding and succeeding nodes. If the nodes of the network are provided again with their original concrete functional and metric properties, then the original system is regained. The nodal network is therefore a structural class of all discrete physical sys- tems. Thus, if there is a formal language for the spatio- temporal description of a directed relational nodal net-
H. VON ISSENDORFF261 work, it is a common language for all discrete physical systems. This even includes every kind of computer, no matter, if it applies to a von-Neumann architecture or not. Akton-Algebra, for short AA, provides this capability. It is important to notice that abstraction from metrics and functionality does not mean abstraction from space and time. The latter would reduce a directed discrete system to a directed graph, i.e. to a mathematical object of graph theory, which does not have any relation to space or time. The spatial relations between the nodes, however, are the very properties on which AA is based upon. An AA-node, i.e. the metric abstraction of a com- ponent, does have an arbitrary but non-zero shape and size, and traversing the node from its front-end to its back-end takes an arbitrary but non-zero amount of time. This means that an action of a component does not dis- appear under metric and functional abstraction but is only reduced to a rudimentary action of propagation. This is the reason why the word "Akton" has been chosen as a general designator of a concrete component and any of its metrical or functional abstractions. A spatial description of spatiotemporal structures by programming has not been considered up to now. Clas- sical data processing languages are not provided with spatial semantics. They do not need to because they are tailored to the sequential execution of the von-Neumann- computer. At first glance, the graphical calculus pro- posed by [3] seems to have some similarity to AA. Their calculus, however, is aimed at quantum informatics and does not describe classical physical structures. Thus, the only paper on spatiotemporal structures seems to be an early one by the author himself [4]. The paper proceeds as follows: In the next section the fundamental elements of a nodal network are analyzed. A topological cut needs to be introduced in order to re- solve crossings in spatial structures, and a second cut to resolve cycles and crosslinks in planar structures. This gives rise to a hierarchy of Akton sorts and a hierarchy of Interface sorts. The language of abstract AA is then syn- thesized from these two fundamental hierarchies. There are four sets of production rules, which stepwise generate a programming language of increasing power. The first set of production rules introduces an AA language for the abstract description of planar and antiparallel structures, the second set extends the AA language to represent symbolic networks, the third one extends it to describe digital or analog functional structures, and the fourth one to even comprise metric structures. The second part of the paper is devoted to symbolic, functional and metrical concretizations. The application of the symbolic language specification already suffices to describe spatial structures of considerable complexity. Surprisingly, the language of antiparallel linear structures generates four fundamental substructures which may be interpreted as the four genetic instructions of life, chemically known as the nucleotides guanine, adenine, thymine, and cytosine. Introducing functionality into AA requires the exten- sion of both the Akton and the In terface hierarchies. This is achieved by introducing digital values as subsorts of the Interface hierarchy. Although not elaborated in detail, analog instead of digital values could be introduced as well. Finally, in order to expand AA into a metric lan- guage requires the extension of Akton sorts and Interface sorts. For this purpose, several basic geometrical struc- tures need to be introduced as for instance multiple links, multiple forks, multiple joins as well as topological cuts. This way AA always permits the constructive representa- tion of every digital or analog electronic circuit on two layers only. These features considerably simplify the layout of highly integrated electronic circuits. The conclusions finally subsume the essential achieve- ments of AA. 2. Elements and Elementary Structures of AA As observed in the introduction, an abstract nodal net- work is a common structure underlying every discrete physical system. In general, a nodal network of a discrete physical system has a three-dimensional structure. A formal description, on the other hand, is an ordered se- quence of symbols and thus has a one-dimensional structure. The aim of this chapter is to show that a three-dimensional nodal network can be mapped into a one-dimensional description and vice versa, without los- ing any structural information. The class of nodal networks we are dealing with is al- ways assumed to be directed. If the physical system un- derlying the network is not directed or does not have an entry and an exit, these features can be introduced with- out the loss of generality. Each node of a directed nodal network has two interfaces, one for the input and one for the output. The representation of a directed abstract nodal net- work can be done at different levels of detail. As de- picted by the hierarchy in Figure 1, new levels of sorts with more and more properties can be added. At the top level, the network is represented by the general sort Ak- ton. At the second level, called the fundamental level, there are four sorts of nodes called Head, Body, Ta il and CS (Closed System). The relations between the sorts are specified by means of interfaces. At the fundamental level, there are only two primitive sorts of interfaces, the non-empty one (symbolized by ε) and the empty one (symbolized by ε). Sort Head has no preceding nodes, i.e. an empty input but at least one succeeding node, i.e. a non-empty output. Sort Tail has no succeeding nodes but at least one preceding node, i.e. a non-empty input and an empty output. Sort Body has at least one preceding Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF 262 node and at least one succeeding node, i.e. a non-empty input and a non-empty output. Figure 1. (a) The hierarchy of abstract Akton sorts. These three levels are common to all discrete systems. The third level comprises the set of basic abstract sorts. (b) The hierarchy of Interface sorts is depicted at the right. At the third level, the non-empty Interface sort is quantified by a basic element called Pin. Finally, sort CS has no preceding and no succeeding nodes, i.e. input and output are empty. The third hierarchical level, called abstract structural level, consists of basic abstract sorts. Their non-empty inputs and outputs are specified by a quantified basic Interface element called Pin. There are three basic sub- sorts of Body called Fork, Join and Link. Fork has one Pin in the input and two Pins in the outpu t, Join has two Pins in the input and one Pin in the output, and Link has one Pin in the input and one in the output. The basic subsorts of Head are called Up and Set each of them having a single Pin in the output. The basic subsorts of Tail are called Down and Off, each having a single Pin in the input. The subsorts of Head and Tail differ by their seman- tics. Up and Down as well as Set and Off are necessary for mapping the three dimensions of nodal networks to the single dimension of a string of symbols, i.e. the pro- gram code. This mapping needs to be explained more closely. Because of the abstraction from metrics the structure of a nodal network is a topological one. A topological structure preserves the adjacency of the nodes, if it is mapped into another shape by a function called homeo- morphism. Even cuts are admissible as long as the corre- lation between the cutting ends is guaranteed. Homeo- morphism is bijective and bicontinuous. This means that an original topological structure may arbitrarily be dis- torted but can always be regained by reversing the ho- meomorphism. In order to describe the topological properties of the nodal network, a topological frame of reference is needed. Since there is no metrics, the frame of reference can only be relational. Such frame of reference can be defined by referring to a human observer who physically differentiates between three independent pairs of inverse spatial relations, i.e. left-right, above-below and front- back. In addition, a privileged direction in the frame of refer- ence needs to be selected in order to orient the directed nodal system, i.e. on which side to place the elements of sort Head and on which side the elements of sort Tail. Following the reading standard of the Western Hemi- sphere, the direction from left to right is chosen. Since every node represents an action and action takes time, the orientation also introduces a direction of time. Thus left will also be interpreted as earlier and right as later. 1) The mapping of the nodal network from a three- dimensional representation to the one-dimensional de- scription of AA requires several steps: The nodal network has to be oriented so that all system Entries are at the left side and all system Exits are at the right side. 2) The nodal network has to be projected to an ori- ented plane of observation spanned between the left-right axis and the above-below axis and positioned between the nodal network and the observer. Usually, this project- tion will give rise to crossings of nodal connections (see Figure 2). Since the crossings are spatial residues they must be removed. This is achieved by cutting the rear connection and replacing the cutting ends by a pair of Down and Up, Down being a subsort of Tail and Up be- ing a subsort of Head as mentioned before. 3) The resulting planar network may still contain non-orientable structures like cycles or crosslinks (see Figure 3). This problem can be solved in a way similar to the crossing problem by cutting the structures and in- serting a pair Off and Set, representing a cut in the plane. Off is a sub sort of Tail and Set is a subsort of Head as mentioned before. Figure 2. Planarization of a spatial structure, i.e. the re- moval of a crossing, is achieved by cutting the rear con- nection and inserting a pair of Aktons instead called Down and Up. Figure 3. Orientation of cycles (a) and crosslinks (b) from left to right by cutting and inserting a pair of Aktons instead called Off and Set. C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF263 4) The separate utilization of spatial and planar cuts does not suffice to linearize every spatial nodal network. There are nodal structures where both cuts are to be ap- plied crosswise. These structures can be characterized by two antisense strands which are interconnected by sev- eral crosslinks. A simplified structure of this kind is de- picted in Figure 4 showing two antisense strands which are connected by two crosslinks. The directions of these crosslinks are not specified on purpose. An orientation of them can be accomplished by either left- or right-twisting the contrarily oriented strand thus generating different crossings of the crosslinks. Figure 4. Simplified structure of two antisense strands connected by two undirected crosslinks. The planarization of the crossings is achieved by ap- plying a spatial cut to the rear crosslink as shown by the dotted red line, and a planar cut to the upper one as shown by the dashed blue line. Finally assigning direc- tions to the crosslinks amounts to four different twin-cuts for the left-twisted as well as the right-twisted structure. The twin-cuts of the left-twisted structures are depicted in detail in Figure 5. A nodal network can now formally be represented by a string of symbols, i.e. in linear form. To this end, two adjacent independent subnetworks x and y are related by an infix symbol "/", called Juxta, where x/y means x lies above y. Likewise, two adjacent dependent subnetworks x and y are related by an infix symbol ">", called Next, where x>y means x precedes y in space and time. In or- der to reduce the amount of parentheses Juxta is assumed to bind stronger than Next. 3. Definition of Abstract AA In the previous chapter we discovered a way how to turn a three-dimensional network of nodes into a linear ori- ented network of a nodal string, i.e. a string of abstract Aktons. A nodal string can be read and processed like a program, which under abstraction from functionality and metrics means to reconstruct the original spatial topo- logical structure of the nodal network. Thus we already know that there exists a formal language for the descrip- tion of nodal networks. In particular, we discovered the set of basic structural nodes of AA. However, what we cannot do up to now is to synthesize a nodal system, be- cause we do not know the rules by which nodal subnet- works are to be related. In formal language terms, we need to know the grammar of AA. That is what we will do in this chapter. Figure 5. Detailed view of four left-twisted twin-cut structures (a), (b), (c), (d) which can be derived from the undirected twin-cut structure of figure 4. AA is a many-sorted term-algebra, throughout defined by first order logic. It is built up from a hierarchy of Ak- ton sorts and a hierarchy of Akton Interfaces. The hier- archies can be formally described by a general function abstract which maps each lower level set of subsorts to its immediate upper sort. The grammar of abstract AA is systematically derived descending the two hierarchies of sorts as shown in Figure 1. There, the first hierarchy is headed by sort Akton, the other one by sort Interface. These general notions will step by step be specified by adding more properties while descending the hierarchical levels further down. Aktons and the relations Next and Ju xta are destined to describe directed nodal networks. Adjacent directed Ak- ton terms may either be dependent or independent. De- pendency is expressed by the relation Next and inde- pendency by the relation Juxta. Next and Juxta produce a free semigroup FA+ of fundamental Akton ter m s. The Akton term variables defined here and further down by means of tables are represented by using the proper names of the sets of term sorts, i.e. if Z+ desig- nates a set of terms sorts then the term variable is called Z. The representation of the production rules by tables is nothing but an inverse BNF. The next level below the general sort Akton comprises the sorts Head, Body, Tail, CS. Their properties have been informally defined in the previous chapter. The four Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF 264 sorts establish a set FA of fundamental Akton sorts . Definition A.1 (Fundamental Akton Sorts) The set FA of fundamental akton sorts is defined as FA := {Head, Body, Tail, CS}, where abstract: FA {Akton} abstract(x):= Akton, if x {Head, Body, Tail, CS} An Interface at the second level of the specification hierarchy (see Figure 1) is either empty or not empty, represented by ε or ε. The two elements establish a set FI of fundamental in terface sorts . Definition A.2 (Fundamental Interface Sorts) The set FI of fundamental interface sorts is defined as FI := { ε ,ε}, where abstract: FI {Interface} abstract(x):= Interface, if x { ε, ε} Every Akton term x has two Interfaces, an input and an output, formally described by in(x) and out(x). Depend- ing on the level of concretization, the Interfaces may be refined by introducing more properties. This gives rise to a hierarchy of Interface sorts, similar to the hierarchy of Akton sorts. At the fundamental level, these functions have the following definition. Definition A.3 (Fundamental Term Level Functions in, out) The fundamental term level functions in, out: FA+ FI are inductively defined as: ε, if zHeadCS ε, if z BodyTail in(z):= in(x)/in(y),if z = (x/y) in(x), if z = (x>y) ε, if zTailCS ε, if z HeadBody out(z):= out(x)/out(y),if z = (x/y) out(y), if z = (x>y) The in- and out-interfaces of Juxta-related Akton terms are packed on top of each other, in the same way as the Akton terms themselves. This means that the Jux- ta-symbol is used for relating Akton terms as well as In- terface elements. This way the order of the Interface el- ements matches the linear order of adjacent independent nodes, i.e., the order serves as a local physical addressing scheme. Definition A.4 (Fundamental Interface Terms) The set of fundamental interface terms is defined as: FI FI* x,y FI*: (x/y) FI*, if y= (x/y) ε ε x= ε ε ε ε ε ε The third level of the hierarchy of Akton sorts introduces structural properties. Consequently, it is called the struc- tural level. Concerning Aktons of sort Body, there are three subsorts representing the structures fork, join and link. They are called Fork, Join and Link accordingly. As discussed in the previous chapter, the mapping of spatial structures to planar structures requires a cut, rep- resented by the pair of Akton sorts Down and Up. Like- wise, the complete sequencing of planar structures re- quires another pair of Akton sorts Off and Set. Thus, Head comprises the subsorts Up and Set and Tail the subsorts Down and Off. Definition A.5 (Structural Akton Sorts) The set A of structural Akton sorts is defined as A := {Up, Set} {Down, Off} {Fork, Join, Link} {CS}, where abstract: A {FA} abstract(x):= Head, if x { Up, Set}, abstract(x):= Tail, if x { Down, Off}, abstract(x):= Body, if x {Fork, Join,Link}, abstract(x):= CS, if x=CS At the third level of the specification hierarchy (see Figure 1) an Interface consists of a set of ordered ele- ments of sort Pin or is empty. This set of structural in- terface sorts is designated by I. Definition A.6 (Structural Interface Sorts) The set I of structural interface sorts is defined as I := {Pin, ε}, where abstract: I {FI} abstract(x):= ε, if x=Pin abstract(x):=ε, if x=ε Definition A.7 (Structural Term Level Functions in, out) The term level functions in, out: A+ I* are inductively defined as: ε, if zHeadCS Pin, if zTailLink Pin, if z = Fork in(z):= Pin/Pin, if z = Join in(x)/in(y), if z = (x/y) in(x), if z = (x>y) ε, if zTailCS Pin, if zHeadLink Pin/Pin, if z = Fork out(z):= Pin, if z = Join out(x)/out(y), if z = (x/y) out(y), if z = (x>y) Definition A.8 (Structural Interface Terms) The set of structural interface terms is defined as the smallest set satisfying: I I* x,y I*: (x/y) I* C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF265 The set of Akton terms A+ is a subset of FA+. A first restriction of A+ is that two dependent terms can only be Next-related if their adjacent Interfaces are identical. The other restriction is that every relation of terms must con- form to a real topological structure. A crossing for instance is characterized by the cut terms D, D D+, and U, U U+, with a separate term B, B B+ in between. This gives rise to four special term sorts, designated by DB+, BD+, UB+, BU+ (see Figure 2). There are four of them because every crossing owns a chirality that can be either left- or right-handed. The planar structures of cycles and crosslinks on the other hand are characterized by the cut terms O, O O+, and S, S S+, which are not separated by another term (see Fig- ure 3). A pair of cut terms can thus only be positioned either at the left or at the right side of a B-term, which results in four special term sorts OB+, BO+, SB+, BS+. Four more special term sorts OBO+, OBS+, SBO+, SBS+ need to be introduced because independent cut terms may occur at both sides of a B-term. The set of production rules P consists of four subsets Pi, i {1,2,3,4} . P1 lists the fundamental rules, P2 the planarizing rules, P3 the linearizing rules and P4 the twin-cut rules. Definition A.9 (Terms of the Akton Language) The set of Akton terms A+ is inductively defined as the smallest set satisfying: A+ := B+ E+ T+ CS+ U+ D+ S+ O+ Body B+, Head H+, Tail T+, CS CS+ , Up U+ , Down D+ , Set S+ , Off O+ x,y A+: (x>y) A+, if out(x)=in(y) and (x>y) Pi x,y A+: (x/y) A+, if (x/y) Pi Pi:= P1 P2 P3 P4 Definition A.10 (Fundamental Production Rules of the Akton Language) The set of fundamental production rules P1 is defined as: y= (x/y) H B T CS H H B B H B B B B B T B B T T x= CS H B T CS y= (x>y) B T H H CS x= B B T Definition A.11 (Planarizing Production Rules of the Akton Language) The set of planarizing production rules P2 is defined as: y= (x/y)BUDBU UB DB BDCS B BBUBD BU BDB U UBU UB U D DB D DB D x=BU BU BU UBUB UB DBDB DB BD BD BD CSBUDBU UB DB BDCS y= (x>y)DB BU UB UCS U B D B BU UB DBDB B x= BDBD B The complete definition of crossings (see Figure 2) re- quires the additional definition of the implicit in-out-relations between U- and D-terms. The following two definitions regard the mirrored structures alterna- tively crossing a B-term either from above or below. Definition A.12 (Implicit Cut-Relations in Crossings) The implicit cut-relations in crossings are defined as: v,w,x,y A+: out(y):= in(v), if (v/w>x/y) B+ and y U+ and v D+ or out(x):= in(w), if (v/w>x/y) B+ and x U+ and w D+. Similarly, the complete definition of cycles and cross- links requires the additional definition of the implicit in-out relations between O- and S-terms. Recall that the feedback of a cycle is always located either above or below a B-term (see Figure 3a). A crosslink, on the oth- er hand, is always located between two B-terms con- necting an upper B-term with a lower B-term or vice versa (see Figure 3b). Definition A.13 (Linearizing Production Rules of the Akton Language) The set of linearizing production rules P3 is defined as: y= (x/y)B S O BO BS OB SB CS BB BS BOBO BS B OOBB O OBO OBS O SSB S B SBO SBS S OBOBOBSOBO OBO OBS OB SBSB SBSSBOSBO SBS SB BS B BS BO B BO x= CSB S O BO BS OB SB CS Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF 266 y= (x>y) O B BO OB BS SB OB OB SBO SBS S CS S B O B BO OB BS SB OB OB SBO SBS BS BS B OB SB SB SB B BO BS BO BO B OB SB OB OB B BOBS SBS SBS SB BS B SBO SBO BO SB B OBS OBS OB BS B x= OBO OB OB BO B Definition A.14 (Implicit Cut-Relations in Cycles) The implicit cut-relations in cycles are defined as: v,w,x,y A+: out(v):=in(x), if (v/w>x/y) B+ and v S+ and x O or out(w):=in(y), if (v/w>x/y) B+ and w S+ and y O+. Definition A.15 (Implicit Cut-Relations in Crosslinks) The implicit cut-relations in crosslinks are defined as: u,v,w,x,y,z A+: out(v):=in(y), if (u>x/y)/(v/w>z) B+ and v S+ and y O+ or out(v):=in(y),if(u/v>x)/(w>y/z) B+and v S+and y O+. The final structure to be defined by production rules is the twin-cut structures as outlined in section 2.4 of the previous chapter. As mentioned the twin-cut structures may be either left- or right-twisted. Changing the direc- tion of the spatial as well as the planar cut gives rise to four different structures each. The left-twisted structures are depicted in Figure 5. Definition A.16 (Twin-Cut Production Rules of the Akton Language) The set of the twin-cut production rules P4 is defined as: y= (x>y) BO BS DB UB BU BUBO BUBS BD BDBO BDBS SB SBDB SBUB x= OB OBDB OBUB y= (x/y) SBDB OBUB SBUB OBDB BUBO B BDBS B BDBO B x= BUBS B Definition A.17 (Implicit Twin-Cut Relations in Left-twisted Antiparallel Structures) The implicit cut-relations in left-twisted antiparallel structures are defined as: s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(t):=in(y) and out(u):=in(x), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and t U+ and y D+ and x O+ and u S+, s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(x):=in(u) and out(y):=in(t), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and y U+ and t D+ and u O+ and x S+, s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(y):=in(t) and out(u):=in(x), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and y U+ and t D+ and x O+ and u S+, s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A+: out(t):=in(y) and out(x):=in(u), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and t U+ and y D+ and u O+ and x S+. Definition A.18 (Implicit Twin-Cut Relations in Right-twisted Antiparallel Structures) The implicit cut-relations in right-twisted antiparallel structures are defined as: s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(t):=in(y) and out(u):=in(x), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and u U+ and x D+ and y O+ and t S+, s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(x):=in(u) and out(y):=in(t), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and x U+ and u D+ and t O+ and y S+, s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(y):=in(t) and out(u):=in(x), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and x U+ and u D+ and y O+ and t S+, s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z A +: out(t):=in(y) and out(x):=in(u), if (s/t>w/x)/(u/v>y/z) B+ and u U+ and x D+ and t O+ and y S+. Single Forks, Joins and Links have a planar structure, and multiple Links are also planar. The structures of mul- tiple Forks and multiple Joins, however, are always spa- tial, i.e. projecting them on a plane can only be achieved by means of Down/Up-cuts. A multiple Fork structure duplicates a structure of multiple Links into two identi- cally ordered structures of multiple Links, and a multiple Join term does the reverse. In order to formally describe these structures, we need to introduce the separation functions pre and suc, which split a Next-relation into a preceding and a succeeding part. Definition A.19 (Separation Functions pre, suc) The functions pre, suc: A+ A+ are defined as: pre(x>y): = x, suc(x>y): = y Definition A.20 (Multiple Link) The set of link terms L+ is inductively defined as the smallest set satisfying: L+ B+ Link L+ x L+: Link/x L+ Multiple Forks as well as multiple Joins can be real- C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF267 ized by either left-hand or right-hand twisting the other- wise identical structures. Accordingly, there are two sets of multiple Forks and of multiple Joins. They will be distinguished by the subscripts l and r indicating whether the twist is left- or right-handed. Definition A.21 (Multiple Fork) The sets of multiple fork terms are recursively defined as: Fl + Fr + B+, (Fork>Down/Link) > (Link/Up) Fl +, x Fl +:(pre(x)/(Fork>Down/Link) > (Link/suc(x)/Up)) (Fork > Link/Down) > (Up/Link) Fr +, xFr +:(pre(x)/(Fork > Link/Down) > (Up/suc(x)/Link)) Definition A.22 (Multiple Join) The sets of multiple join terms are recursively defined as: Jl + Jr + B+, (Down/Link) > (Link/Up > Join) Jl +, xJl +:(Down/pre(x)/Link > suc(x)/(Link/Up>Join)) (Link/Down) > (Up/Link > Join) Jr +, xJr +:(Link/pre(x)/Down > suc(x)/(Up/Link>Join)) Modularity, i.e. the capability of combining several modules into a single one, is an indispensable require- ment for the design of complex systems. In AA modular- ity is easily incorporated because all modules are Aktons, and every Akton term, how big it ever may be, can be concealed into a single Akton. Concealing means hiding the structure of an Akton term into an Akton while pre- serving the visibility of the input and the output. The new Akton is added to set A, and of course needs to be pro- vided with a distinct name. In contrast, regarding con- ventional digital programming languages, modularization and information hiding can be quite a problem [5]. Definition A.23 (Function conceal) The function conceal: A+ A is defined as: conceal(x) := y, if not xA In order to densify the Akton expressions later on we introduce a count function for sequences of identical Next-terms and a count function for regular Ju xta -terms. Next-counts are represented by symbol ‘*’(called star) and Juxta-counts by symbol ‘^’(called roof). Syntacti- cally, both bind stronger than Next and Juxta. Definition A.24 (Counting Functions *, ^ of Next- and Juxta-Terms) The counting function *: N A+ A + is inductively defined as: (n+1)*x = n*x>x, 1*x = x, nN, xA+ The counting function ^: A+ N A + is inductively de- fined as: x^(n+1)= x^n/x, x^1 = x, nN, xA+ We also introduce the counting function ^ for sequences of regular Interface terms. Definition A.25 (Counting Function ^ of Inter- face-Terms) The counting function ^: I* N I* is inductively defined as: x^(n+1)= x^n/x, x^1 = x, nN, xI* 4. Dependency Preserving Term Replacements The structure of a given nodal network can be modified in different ways without affecting the dependencies between the terms. Formally the modifications are achieved by term replacement according to the rules of Tab. 1. The rules say that the left term may be replaced by the right term provided that the constraint at the right side holds. The "↔"-symbol says that the terms are mu- tually replaceable. Table 1: Dependency preserving term replacement rules a. Link-Rules: x↔(y>x), if in(y)=in(x) x↔(x>y), if out(y)=out(x) b. Expansion-Rules: x↔(y/x), if yCS+ x↔(x/y), if yCS+ c. Associativity-Rules:((x>y)>z )↔(x>(y>z)), if true ((x/y)/z)↔(x/(y/z)), if true d. Distributivity: ((w>x)/(y>z ))→(w/y>x/z),if true (w/y>x/z)→((w>x)/(y>z)),if out(w)=in(x) e. Connectivity-Rules:((w>x)/(y>z ))↔(w>x/y>z), if out(x)=ε and in(y)=ε ((w>x)/(y>z ))↔(y>w/z>x), if in(w)=ε and out(z)=ε w,x,y,zA+ The link-rules a. add a Link term y to a term x or delete it. The term y may either precede or succeed term x as stated by the two rules. The constraints are that the out- put of the left term must fit the input of the right term. Usually term y will just consist of a strip of Links. The expansion-rules b. place or remove a dead term y, i.e. a neutral place, above or below a term x. Term x is of sort A+, term y is of sort CS+. Both expansion-rules play an important role in the layout process. The associativ- ity-rules c. modify the structure of Next- and Juxta-related te r ms . The first of the distributivity-rules d. states that distributivity of Juxta over Next always holds while the other rule states that distributivity of Next over Juxta is restricted. The connectivity-rules e. splice two independent Juxta-terms into a single term or vice versa. 5. Abstract Structural Models The properties of abstract AA are exemplified by four symbolic nodal structures. Each of the descriptions is accompanied by an AA-program by which every struc- Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF 268 ture can completely be reconstructed. 5.1. Tetrahedron The first example (see Figure 6) deals with a tetrahedron showing in detail the successive steps of mapping from the spatial structure to the linear program. In a first step a rear edge of the tetrahedron is cut, as marked by a thin red line, and the free ends are marked by an Up/Down-pair. Figure 6. The mapping of a tetrahedron from the spatial structure to a linear AA-program needs three steps. It is first planarized by an Up/Down cut along the red line, then fully oriented by a Set/Off cut along the blue line, and finally turned into an AA- program. This makes it possible to spread the tetrahedron on a plane, and to orient the planar structure from left to right according to the direction introduced by the Up/Down-plane, and to orient the planar structure from left to right according to the direction introduced by the Up/Down-pair. The planar structure is then cut again, as marked by a long thin blue line. While the cuts of both outer edges are healed by inserting Links the cut of the crosslink is marked by a Set/Off-pair, all shown in blue. This provides the crosslink with a unique direction (see Figure 6). (A reversely ordered Off/Set-pair would of course reverse the direction of the crosslink.) The result- ing structure is represented by a linear program. 5.2. Helix and Sheet The next two examples have been selected in order to indicate the relation between AA and the as yet unknown protein programming language, which programs the spa- tial structure of proteins by chains of amino acids [1]. Since the vocabulary of AA is just derived from a few general principles it can be conjectured that the amino acids are also describable by AA-expressions. The struc- ture (a) of Figure 7 represents a model of two loops of a right-handed α-helix. Since a α-helix is a spatial structure, it takes Up/Down-pairs to planarize it and Set/Off-pairs to fully orient it from left to right. The structure (b) of Figure 7 represents a model of a ß-pleated sheet. Since this structure is planar, it only takes S et/Off-pairs in order to stretch it into a programming code. Figure 7. Model and AA-program of a right-handed α-helix (a), and model and AA-program of a β-sheet (b.) 5.3. Modeling DNA A first particular application of twin-cuts concerns the modeling of the genetic code. Figure 8. Nucleotide models of the four elements of DNA- code. Akton term (A) is pair-wise complementary to Akton term (T), and Akton term (G) is pair-wise complementary to Akton term (C). C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS 269 Figure 9. Model of a double stranded DNA, partially split into two single strands modeling RNA. Figure (a) shows the planar AA-model, Figure (b) the linear AA-expression. As well-known, the basic information on the construc- tion of all organisms are expressed by a 4-symbol pro- gramming language, where the symbols represent the nucleobases called Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T) [6]. Here we will use the same ab- breviations for the nucleotides, whereupon each nucleo- base is extended by a piece of backbone. An important feature of the nucleotides is that they are pair-wise com- plementary, i.e. A matches with T, and G matches with C. The twin-cuts of AA offer exactly the same property and thus are perfectly suited to model DNA. Since AA dis- tinguishes between above and below, there are two rep- resentations for each of the four nucleotides. This is visualized by Figure 8, where the four twin-cuts of Fig- ure 5 are now described by akton terms according to the production rules P4. Assuming that Adenine (A) is represented by the Ak- ton term BUBO then Thymine (T) is represented by SBDB. Likewise, assuming that Guanine (G) is repre- sented by BDBO then Cytosine (C) is represented by SBUB. Figure 8 models the four elements of DNA-code. The elements are pairwise complementary to each other. Exchanging U and D (the red balls) as well as S and O (the blue balls) turns term (A) into term (T), and term (G) into term (C). This is exactly the matching property of Adenine/Thymine-pair and the Guanine/Cytosine-pair. The four elements of the DNA-code are perfectly suited to describe a double stranded helix as well as RNA. Figure 9a shows an example and Figure 9b the AA-program. A second particular feature of the twin-cuts is that their left- or right-twist is suited to model the chirality of a double helix. This statement is substantiated by the fol- lowing arguments: Since topological nodes have a finite albeit unknown volume and twin-cuts are crossings of two pairs of nodes, twin-cuts do have a natural skew. As shown in Figure 10, a left-twisted twin-cut causes a right-twisted skew between the strands and vice versa. It is this skew that causes two strands which are intercon- nected by twin-cuts to turn into a double helix. Figure 10. Simplified sketch of a twin-cut visualizing its skew. Another example of a twin-cut structure is the circuit diagram of an SR-Flipflop (see Figure 12) which will be treated in section 6.2. 6. Concretizing AA: Symbolic Systems The language of AA, as defined up to this point, de- scribes the topological structure of abstract discrete spa- tial systems. It can now step by step be concretized to- wards special discrete systems by introducing new Ak- tons as subsorts of the abstract Akton sorts. The new subsorts inherit the properties of their hierarchical an- cestors and may be provided with additional properties. However, none of the additional properties may ever conflict with the inherited properties. There are three main ways how to concretize abstract AA. Most trivially, it could be done by introducing new subsorts and desig- nating them only symbolically, i.e. without adding new properties. Typical examples are wiring diagrams of an- alog or digital circuitry. The new akton sorts can be provided with functionality by extending the Interface hierarchie giving rise to func- tional systems. Finally, the Akton and the Interface hierarchie can be provided with a metric giving rise to concrete spatial systems. Each of the three modes will be studied in the sequel.
H. VON ISSENDORFF 270 6.1. Digital Circuit Description As well-known, every binary function can be realized by a single sort Nand or by a single sort Nor. Usually how- ever, several sorts are applied. Here, we introduce the subsorts And, Or, No t and Wire, where Not denotes the inversion function and Wire the 1-function. And and Or are subsorts of Join, and Not and Wire are subsorts of Link. The extension of the Akton hierarchy by concrete subsorts is depicted in Figure 11(a). The set of digital subsorts is designated by dA. Figure 11. Extending so rt Join of the akton hierarchy (a) by the subsorts And and Or, and sort Link by the subsorts Wire and Not, keeping the Interface hierarchy (b) unchanged, turns AA into a digital circuit description language. Definition D.1 (Digital Akton Sorts) The set dA of digital akton sorts is defined as: dA:={Up, Set} {Fork} {And, Or} {Wire, Not} {Down, Off} {CS}, where abstract: dA A, abstract(x):= Join, if x{And, Or} abstract(x):= Link, if x{Wire, Not} abstract(x):= x, if x{Up, Set, Fork, Down, Off, CS} Definition D.2 (Digital Akton Terms) The set of digital akton terms dA+ is inductively defined as the smallest set satisfying: dA dA+ x,y dA+: (x>y) dA+ x,y dA+: (x/y) dA+ The properties of the digital circuit description lan- guage defined on the set of digital akton terms dA+ are subsequently demonstrated by three digital circuits and their description by an AA-program. 6.2. SR-Flipflop The SR-Flipflop shown in Figure 12 serves to emphasize the important property of AA to analytically describe feedback circuits. With this property AA overcomes the severe restriction of register-transfer-level programming languages which only describe the logical expressions between two storage cycles [7]. Figure 12. Symbolic Circuit diagram and AA-program of an SR-Flipflop. 6.3. Half- and Full-Adder The examples of a half- and a full-adder shown in Fig- ure 13 serve to demonstrate how more complex systems can be built up from low level systems either by desig- nating Akton terms by abbreviations or by concealing them into Aktons. Systems of arbitrary complexity can thus be treated just as every simple system. Figure 13. Symbolic Circuit diagrams and AA-programs of a half-adder HAd (a), and a full-adder FAd (b). The structure and the Akton term on top of Figure 13 show the circuit diagram of the half-adder HAd (a), and those at the bottom the circuit diagram of the full adder FAd (b). Both Akton terms are of sort B+. F2 designates a two-Fork structure doubling 2 inputs into 4 outputs. The structure and the Akton term on top of Figure 13a show the circuit diagram and the AA-program of a half-adder HAd. Figure 13b at the bottom depicts the circuit diagram and AA-program of a full adder FAd. Both Akton terms are of sort B+. F2 designates a two-Fork structure doubling two inputs into four outputs. 7. Concretizing AA: Functional Systems In the previous section we concretized AA symbolically, i.e. only by extending the Akton hierarchy by additional Akton sorts, however without providing them with any extra properties. This step alone was sufficient to create a C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF271 programming language for symbolic system description and design. We now proceed to provide the newly introduced Ak- ton sorts with functional properties. This enhances AA to a general data processing language. The enhancement is achieved by introducing data values as subsorts of the interface sort Pin and by defining functions between the input and the output of the Aktons. This way several kinds of functionality can be implemented, e.g. digital or analog functions or even both together. Moreover, be- cause AA can be equipped with all the elementary func- tions of analog or digital circuitry and because these functions can arbitrarily be composed to more complex functions, a plethora of low or high level programming languages can be created this way. It should also be noted that abstract AA does not im- pose any restrictions on the system behaviour. Since ab- stract AA does not make use of the notion of states, the execution of an AA-program behaves flow-controlled or, if digital data processing is introduced, as data driven [8]. However, the data driven behaviour can easily be turned into a state driven one by starting the evaluation of a succeeding akton only after the output of the preceding aktons is fully defined. A clock driven behaviour, i.e. the behaviour of most computers, can then be achieved by supplying each akton term with a storage function and by fitting the Akton evaluation time into the clock cycle. 7.1. Digital Data Processing In this section, we concentrate on data driven digital data processing. To this end, we extend sor t Join of the Ak- ton-hierarchy not just by the subsorts And and Or, and sort Link by the subsorts Wire and Not (see figure 14a). Figure 14: Extending sort Join by the subsorts And and Or, and sort Link by the subsorts Wire and Not, turns AA into a digital circuit description language (a). Further extending sort Pin of the Interface hierarchie (b) by the subsorts 0,1,# and defining the functions in and out by them, as done by definition D.5, generates a digital data processing language. In addition, we now expand sort Pin of the inter- face-hierarchy (Figure 14b) by the digital values (0, 1, #), where value # indicates the state of the Pin before processing. Each of the functions contained in an Akton can only be evaluated, if its individual input data are available. Moreover, since the evaluation of the functions takes a different finite amount of time, the output of an Akton is always delayed and if there are several output Pins, they are never exactly synchronized. Definition D.3 (Digital Interface Sorts) The set of digital interface sorts dI is defined as: dI := {0, 1, #} {ε}, where abstract: dI I abstract(x):= Pin, if x{0, 1, #} abstract(x):= ε, if x=ε Definition D.4 (Digital Interface Terms) The set of digital interface terms dI* is inductively de- fined as the smallest set satisfying: dI dI*, x,y dI*: (x/y)dI* Definition D.5 (Digital Functions in, out) The digital functions in, out: dA+ dI* are defined as: out(And) :=1, if in(And)=1/1 out(And) :=0, if (in(And)=0/x or in(And)=x/0) out(And) :=#, if (in(And)=#/x or in(And)=x/#) out(Or):=0, if in(Or)=0/0 out(Or):=1, if (in(Or)=1/x or in(Or)=x/1) out(Or):=#, if (in(Or)=#/x or in(Or)=x/#) out(Not):=1, if in(Not)=0 out(Not):=0, if in(Not)=1 out(Not):=#, if in(Not)=# out(Wire):= x, if in(Wire)=x out(Fork):=x/x,if in(Fork)=x out(Head):=x, if in(Head)=ε out(Tail):=ε, if in(Tail)=x x{1,0,#} Establishing the transmission of data between Next-related Akton terms extends AA from a description language of static systems to a description language of dynamic systems. In particular, this renders it possible to describe positive or negative feedback, i.e. either the storage of data or the repetition of functions. The fol- lowing definition can therefore be regarded as a basic rule of computation. Definition D.6 (Digital Data Transmission) The digital data transmission is defined as: x,y dA+: in(y):=out(x), if (x>y) 7.2. Systems Behaviour The behaviour of linear AA-programs like those of the half-adder or the full-adder is immediately understand- able just by providing them with data and then tracing their execution step-by-step. However, a cyclic program is not that simple. For this reason we inspect the behav- iour of a feedback cycle as depicted in Figure 15. Part (a) shows the structure of the feedback cycle and its program, part (b) the behaviour. Initially, every Akton is in the undefined state #. Supplying state 0 to the input, i.e. Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF 272 out(Set1):=0, results in a steady state, where all Aktons are defined. Recall that according to Def. A.14 Off transfers its input to the output of Set. If subsequently state 1 is supplied to the inp ut , i.e. out(S et1):=1, the feedback cycle starts oscillating. Figure 15: Structural and behavioural representation of a feedback circuit. Part (a) depicts the planar and linear representation of the circuit. Part (b) describes the states of the circuit components. In order to enter into a continuous loop the circuit first needs to be initialized by out(Set1):=0 followed by out(Set1):=1. 8. Concretizing AA: Metric Systems Recall that a correct AA-expression completely describes the topological structure of a physical system no matter, whether the structure is spatial, planar or linear, and no matter, whether the system representation is abstract or concrete. In order to fully reconstruct the metric of a given physical system from its abstract topological structure, we only have to reintroduce the original com- ponents and to eliminate the spatial cuts. This is the nov- el benefit of AA which has not been available up to now. However, our actual objective is more ambitious: We are aiming at a powerful tool to construct new systems and to adapt their concrete structures to arbitrary technical requirements. This makes it necessary to introduce a frame of reference by which the metric of the compo- nents, i.e. their shape and size, can consistently be de- fined. A simple frame of reference can be introduced by as- suming all basic Aktons having the same quadratic re- spectively cubical size. The dimensionality of the frame of reference can be expressed by the directions a wayfarer would have to take to follow the directions of the AA -structure. Three directions are needed for a planar frame, i.e. straight, left and right, and two more for a spatial frame, i.e. up and down. Since there is no difference between a planar and a spatial frame of reference except for the number of di- rections, we confine ourselves to a planar one. 8.1. Rectangular Metric Systems The planar directions are introduced into AA by means of i.e. {F structured subsorts of the sorts Fork, Join and Link. There are three basic aktons to each subsort, lr,Fls,Fsr}, {Jlr,Jls,Jsr}, {Ls,Ll,Lr}, where F, J, L are ab- breviations of Fork, Join and Link, and the subscripts s, l, r are abbreviations of straight, left and right. (In a 3-dimensional reference frame the number of basic Ak- ton would rise to 10 for subsorts of Fork and Join and to 5 for subsorts of Link.) The extended hierarchy of Akton sorts is shown in Figure 16 (a). A uniform metric is achieved by extending the interface of sort ε by a subsort Gap representing an empty place with the same width as sort Pin, as shown in Figure 16 (b). igure 16. Extending the sorts Fork, Join and Link by An arbitrary metric Akton term built up from quadratic ba as: s, L, Lr} if x{Flr, Fls, Fsr}, tructural interface is ei tric Interface Sorts) d as: x=Pin, face Terms) ductively de- F structured metric subsorts (a) and introducing Gap as an identically sized companion of Pin (b) turns AA into a metric spatial programming language. sic components will generally not have a quadratic shape. However, an Akton term may always be given a rectangular shape by adding or deleting basic Akton terms being subsorts of CS. Without loss of generality it can therefore be assumed that every metric Akton term can always be given a rectangular shape. Definition M.1 (Metric Akton Sorts) The set of metric akton sorts mA is defined mA := {Head} {Flr, Fls, Fsr} {Jlr, Jls, Jsr} {L l {Tail}, where abstract: mA A, abstract(x):= Fork, abstract(x):= Join, if x{Jlr, Jls, Jsr}, abstract(x):= Link, if x{Ls, Ll, Lr} As defined in A.7, an abstract s ther empty or contains Pins. With the metric refine- ment an interface of an Akton term may now contain Pins, Gaps or both. Definition M.2 (Me The set of metric interface sorts mI is define mI := {Pin} { Gap }, where abstract: mI I, abstract(x):= x, if abstract(x):= ε, if x=Gap Definition M.3 (Metric Inter The set of metric interface terms mI+ is in fined as the smallest set satisfying: mI mI+ C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF273 +: (x/y) mI+ introducing a metric each Akton te in- hile i=Gap/j, t the metric interfaces of the four si 5 (Functions si) }, sidei mI+, Pin,Gap}, if z=Head (z):= {Gap,Pin,Pin,Pin}, if z=Jlr (z):= Next we defins the out- t) defined as: 2, 0 2 Definiti ngularton Terms) nductively (x>y) mA+, of rigid rectangular Aktons in M.8 (Tilt Functions tl (anticlockwise), tr s tl, tr: mA mAare defined as: {tl,tr}, output directions to the Body Aktons ex x,y mI On the other hand, by rm now attains an individual size. Even the adjacent sides of two Next-related Akton terms x>y may differ in size, because of different numbers of Gaps above and below their proper interfaces. These Gaps can formally be removed by introducing two functions, called atrim and btrim, where atrim eliminates all Gaps above a first Pin and btrim all Gaps below a last Pin. The function composition of atrim and btrim, i.e. the function trim, produces an interface beginning and ending with a Pin. This Interface can be interpreted as a plug. Plugging the Interfaces of two Next-related terms x>y then means to shift both terms into their correct relative Juxta-position. Definition M.4 (Functions atrim, btrim, trim) The functions atrim, btrim, trim: mI+ mI+ are ductively defined as: atrim(i) := atrim(j) w btrim(i) := btrim(j) while i=j/Gap trim := atrim◦btrim. In order to extrac des of a rectangular Akton term we introduce the func- tions si. The sides are clockwise enumerated, s0 denoting the left-hand side. We first define the sides of the basic Aktons. Definition M. The functions si: mA+ {sidei i{0,1,2,3} are defined as: {Gap,Gap, {Pin,Gap,Gap,Gap}, if z=Tail {Gap,Gap,Gap,Gap}, if z=CS si {Pin,Pin,Gap,Pin}, if z=Flr {Pin,Pin,Pin,Gap}, if z=Fls {Pin,Gap,Pin,Pin}, if z=Fsr {Pin,Pin,Pin,Gap}, if z=Jls {Pin,Gap,Pin,Pin}, if z=Jsr si {Pin,Gap,Pin,Gap}, if z=Ls {Pin,Pin,Gap,Gap}, if z=Ll {Pin,Gap,Gap,Pin}, if z=Lr e the structural relationbetween put and the input of each metric subsort. Definition M.6 (Metric Functions in, ou The metric functions in, out: mA+ mI+ are out(Ls) ):= s2, if in(Ls)= s0 out(Ll):= s1, if in(Ll)= s0 out(Lr):= s3, if in(Lr)= s0 out(Fls):= s1/s if in(Fls)=s 0 out(Fsr):= s2/s3, if in(Fsr )= s0 out(Flr):= s1/s3, if in(Flr)= s0 out(Jsr):= s2, if in(Jls )= s1/s out(Jls):= s2, if in(Jsr )= s0/s3 out(Jlr):= s2, if in(Jlr )= s1/s3 out(Head):= s in(Tail):= s0 on M.7 (Recta Ak The set of rectangular akton terms mA+ is i defined as the smallest set satisfying: mA mA+ x,y mA+: if trim(out(x)) = trim(in(y)) In order to fold a network to a planar area, we need a means to turn the Akton terms into another direction. This can be achieved by introducing two tilt functions tl and tr, where tl turns an Akton term orthogonally to the left and tr orthogonally to the right. Definition (clockwise)) The tilt function++ t(x>y) = t(x)>t(y), t(x/y) = t(x)/t(y), t tl(tr(x)) = tr(tl(x)) = x tl(tl(x)) = tr(tr(x)) Assigning input/ tends them to three subsorts each. The basic sorts of structured metric Aktons are depicted in Figure 17. igure 17. Basic sorts of structured metric Aktons. There bstract multiple Links, multiple Forks and multiple Jo F are three subsorts of Fork, Join and Link each, which differ in the direction they proceed. Their paths turn either to the left, to the right or proceed straight. In addition, the basic metric aktons of D (Down), U (Up) and CS are shown. The metric aktons Set and Off are skipped. A ins have already been defined by Defs. A.21, A.22 and A.23. These structures are important in the layout proc- ess of digital systems. Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF 274 According to the rectangular metric being assumed here, there are three structures of metric multiple Links, which can be generated making use of the basic metric subsorts Ls, Ll, Lr. While a straight multiple Link can just be generated by Juxta-relating Links to columns and then Next-relating the columns to strips of any finite length, tilted multiple structures need to be realized by Jux- ta-related structures of single chains of ascending and descending length which together form a square. The centerpiece of a left-tilted chain is an element of sort Ll (as shown later on in Figure 19(a)) and the centerpiece of a right-tilted chain is an element of sort Lr. Definition M.9 (Metric Multiple Links) The sets of metric multiple Links are recursively defined as: mL+ mA+ mLl + mLr + mL+ x(i) mLl + x(1):= Ll i N: x(i):=x(i)/((i-1)*Ls>Ll>tl((i-1)*Ls)), if 1≥i x(i) mLr + x(1):= Lr i N: x(i):= x(i)/((i-1)*Ls>Lr>tr((i-1)*Ls)), if 1≥i Metric multiple Fork as well as Join structures have some special features. Firstly, a metric multiple Fork cannot be constructed from a basic element Flr, because the two outputs of such a structure are ordered reversely. The same applies for the two inputs of a metric multiple Join if it constructed by a basic element Jlr.. Secondly, as already stated by Defs. A.21 and A.22, regular abstract multiple Forks and Joins are built up by crossings and therefore are either left- or right-handed. This chirality is preserved, if a metric is introduced. However, coming along with the metrisation is a path orientation which in case the chirality is left-handed is either oriented straight or left-tilted, and in case it is right-handed is either ori- ented straight or right-tilted. This gives rise to two mul- tiple Fork constructs and two multiple Join constructs as represented in Figure 18. Figure 18 further demonstrates that the constructs can be concealed to individual Aktons (see A.23), and since each side of the Aktons contains at most one Pin and a via they can be reduced to unit square size. This way the concealed structures get the appearance of a combination of a Link and a via. The concealed and minimized struc- tures are designated by Fl,l and Fr,r, resp. Jl,l and Jr,r, where the first index defines the chirality of the via and the second the orientation of the Link. Fl,l:=conceal(tl(D/L s)/(F ls>Ll)), Fl,l DB+ si(Fl,l):={Pin,Pin,Gap,Gap} Fr,r:=conceal((Fsr>Lr)/tr( L s/D)), Fr,r BD+ si(Fr,r):={Pin,Gap,Gap,Pin} Jl,l:=concea l((tr(U/L s)/(tr(Ll)>J ls)), Jl,l UB+ si(Jl,l):={Gap,Pin,Gap,Pin} Jr,r:=conceal((tl(Lr)> Jsr )/tl(L s/U)), Jr,r BU+ si(Jr,r):={Gap,Gap,Pin,Pin} Figure 18. A concealed structure can be scaled down into a unit sqare rectangle if no Pin and no via points in the same direction. Definition M.10 (Metric Multiple Forks) The sets of metric multiple Forks are recursively defined as: mF+ mA+ mFl,l + mFr,r + mF+ x(i) mFl,l + x(1):= Fl,l i N: x(i):=x(i)/((i-1)*Ls>Fl,l>tl((i-1)*Ls))>tl(Ls^i/CS)/U^i , if 1≥i x(i) mFr,r + x(1):= Fr,r i N: x(i):=x(i)/((i-1)*Ls>Fr,r +>tr((i-1)*Ls))>tr(CS/Ls^i)/U^i , if 1≥i Definitions M.11 (Metric Multiple Joins) The sets of metric multiple Joins are recursively defined as: mJ+ mA+ mJl,l + mJl,l + mJ+ x(i) mJl,l + x(1):= Jl,l i N: x(i):=x(i)/((i-1)*Ls>tl(Jl,l)>tr (( i- 1)* Ls))> tr(Ls^i/CS)/U^i , if 1≥i x(i) mJr,r + x(1):= Jr,r i N:x(i):=x(i)/((i- 1)*Ls>tr(Jr,r +)>tl (( i- 1)* Ls))> tl(CS/Ls C opyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF275 ^i)/U^i , if 1≥i 8.2. Layout of Metric Triple Links and Triple Forks Metric Links and metric Forks are important structures for the planar layout of electronic systems, because they allow treating a bundle of parallel connections like a single one. Metric Links are particularly indispensable for folding a straight Akton structure into a desired planar layout. Each time the structure is to be expanded a metric multiple Link of subsort mLs has to be inserted, and each time it is to be tilted to the left or to the right either subsort mLl or mLr has to be inserted. Figure 19(a) shows the structure and the program of a left-tilted strip of three chains of Links. Figure 19 (b) shows the structure and the program of a multiple Fork of three strips. Sort Fl,l represents a unit square concealment of the term (tl(D/Ls)/(Fls>Ll)). Figure 19. Two layout examples: (a) Structure and program of a strip of three chains turning left, and (b) structure and program of a strip of three Forks forking straight and left. Mind that in the second Akton term of program (b) each Up relates exactly to one Down concealed in Fl,l according to Def. A. 21 and that also the straight Links Ls are metrically fixed, thus giving rise to its rectangular structure. 9. Conclusions Every discrete physical system can be converted into a spatiotemporal network of nodes by abstracting from functions and metrics, as demonstrated in this paper. Apparently, this kind of formal description of spatio- temporal structures has not been considered up to now. Any two nodes of an abstract network are either de- pendent or independent. Converting a three-dimensional network into a linear one requires two homeomorphic cuts, a first one that planarizes the network and a second one that linearizes it into a sequence of symbols. Total execution of the topological program reconstructs the original spatiotemporal network. An abstract network represents an algebra with a set of fundamental sorts. These sets can be refined and concretized by subsorts, providing them with a wealth of features. Treated this way, the spatiotemporal approach offers several surprising properties: 1) The linearization of spatiotemporal networks by means of homeomorphic twin-cuts directly generates the four letter code of DNA, which even naturally explains the skew of the double helix. 2) Extending sort Join of the Akton hierarchy by Boo- lean subsorts like And, Or, and sort Link by subsorts like Wire and Not turns the algebra into a digital circuit de- scription language. Thus, even storage elements like Flipflops can be represented, i.e. the proper obstacle of the register transfer level calamity. 3) Reintroducing the functionality of the physical sys- tem by means of ternary interface subsorts turns the ab- stract programming language into a flow-controlled gen- eral data processing language. The functions may either be analog or digital. The flow-control can be restricted by partial synchronization or by total clock-control. The latter squeezes digital data processing into the word-at-time scheme of the von-Neumann-architecture, as most digital programming languages of today. 4) Reintroducing the metrics of the physical system, i.e. the shape and size of the components, turns abstract Akton-Algebra into a novel hardware system construc- tion language. 5) An important property regards the layout of elec- tronic circuitry. Every electronic circuit can always be realized by two layers only. 6) The metric algebra of AA can be extended to a third dimension by introducing two more tilt functions (see Def. M.8) for the vertical direction. It is then possible to describe devices of any shape or size by employing the dependency rules of table 1. 7) The original von-Neumann-architecture can simply be restored by pulling all stored information from the AA-network and collecting it in a separate main memory, and by placing a set of accumulation registers in be- tween. Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS
H. VON ISSENDORFF Copyright © 2013 SciRes. IJCNS 276 8) Aside from the considerable technical improve- ments of the AA-network-architecture the enormous augmentation in processing speed should be mentioned. 10. Acknowledgements There are several colleagues who notably supported me during my long work towards Akton-Algebra. One of the first was Rudolf Albrecht, Innsbruck, who showed great interest in my approach when we first met in 1993 in Lessach and with whom I have had many very fruitful discussions since then. A next one to be mentioned gratefully is Walter Dosch, Lübeck, for several lucid comments. Moreover, I am most grateful to Bernd Braßel, Kiel, with whom I was in an ongoing email dis- cussion for a couple of years. Finally, I am much obliged to Manfred Broy for some valuable hints. REFERENCES [1] K. A. Dill, S. B. Ozkan, M. S. Shell, T. R. Weikl, “The Protein Folding Problem,” Annual Review of Bio- physics,Vol. 37, 2002, pp. 289-316. [2] M. Hazewinkel, “Homeomorphism,” Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, Berlin, 2001. [3] S. Abramski, B. Coecke, “Physics from Computer Science,” International Journal of Unconventional Com- puting, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2007, pp. 179-197. [4] H. von Issendorff, “Algebraic Description of Phys- ical Systems,” In: R. Moreno-Diaz, B. Buchberger and J. Freire, Eds., Computer Aided Systems Theory, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 2178, 2001, pp. 110-124. [5] P. W. O’Hearn, H. Yang and J. C. Reynolds, “Sep- aration and Information Hiding,” ACM ACM Sympo- sium on Principles of Programming Languages, 2004, pp. 268-280. [6] B. Alberts et al.: “Molecular Biology of the Cell,” Garland Publishing, New York, 2012, pp.1-46. [7] D. Jansen et al., “The Electronic Design Automa- tion Handbook,” Kluwer Academic Publishers, El- sevier,2003,pp. 33-40. [8] W. M. Johnston, J. R. P. Hanna and R. J.Millar, “Advances in Dataflow Programming Languages,” ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 36, No. 1, 2004, pp. 1-34.
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