Factors Associated with Teachers’ Recruitment and Continuous Engagement of External Coaches in School-Based Extracurricular Sports Activities: A Qualitative Study

doi:10.4236/ape.2013.32010

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Advances in Physical Education

2013. Vol.3, No.2, 62-70

Published Online May 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ape) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ape.2013.32010

Factors Associated with Teachers’ Recruitment and Continuous

Engagement of External Coaches in School-Based Extracurricular

Sports Activities: A Qualitative Study

Kenryu Aoyagi1, Kaori Ishii2, Ai Shibata2, Hirokazu Arai3, Chisato Hibi1, Koichiro Oka2

1Graduate School of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Saitama, Japan

2Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Saitama, Japan

3Faculty of Letters, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan

Email: ken-ryu.ao-yagi@ruri.waseda.jp

Received January 18th, 2013; revised February 20th, 2013; accepted March 4th, 2013

Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the

original work is properly cited.

School-based extracurricular sports activity (SBECSA) has developed as an opportunity that adolescents

play sports in Japan. However, there are some issues to maintain active SBECSA such as lack of teacher

who can coach SBECSA expertly, and large imposition of teachers to manage SBECSA. For resolving

these issues, promoting engagement of external coach is favorable. Nevertheless, the number of external

coach has not been enough. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to explain facilitators and

barriers related with teacher’s action for recruitment and handling with external coach, and expected

qualification for external coach. Personal semi-structured interview was performed toward 22 teachers

who worked in a public junior high school or a public high school. In the analysis of the present study, the

KJ method―a type of qualitative analyses―was used. All transcribed data were divided into individual

content and grouped together into small, middle and large categories. For facilitators, four large categories

such as benefits to SBECSA, benefits to teachers, system and support were emerged. For barriers, four

large categories such as negative influences on SBECSA, negative influences on teachers, system and

support were grouped. For expected qualifications, five large categories such as humanity, ability, co-

operativeness, attributions and trust were categorized. In conclusion, the present study identified various

facilitators, barriers and expected qualifications. External coach would increase by enhancing facilitators,

reducing barriers, and targeting human resource who meets expected qualifications.

Keywords: Adolescent; KJ Method; Facilitator; Barrier; Expected Qualification

Introduction

Sports are regarded as necessary activities for people to lead

a healthy and cultural life (Ministry of Education, Culture,

Sports, Science and Technology in Japan: MEXT, 2011).

School-based extracurricular sports activity (SBECSA) has

been developed to provide an opportunity for adolescents to

play sports. In Japan, SBECSA is performed after school and

on weekends. Generally, teachers coach team members and

manage the SBECSA. In 2009, 64.9% of junior high school

students (75.5% boys and 53.8% girls) and 40.7% of high

school students (54.5% boys and 26.6% girls) participated in

SBECSA (MEXT, 2009b). Because of large numbers of par-

ticipants, SBECSA is considered to have an enormous influ-

ence on adolescents’ lives. Furthermore, MEXT has empha-

sized that SBECSA should be closely associated with education

in the Course of Study for junior high and high schools (cur-

riculum guide for defining basic standards for education)

(MEXT, 2008, 2009a).

SBECSA is a very valuable activity for healthy development

of adolescents. A Japanese national-wide survey for physical

fitness revealed not only a cross-sectional positive relationship

between participation in SBECSA and physical fitness, but also

a long-term effect of SBECSA on adult physical fitness (MEXT,

2012). Farb and Matjasko (2012) reviewed previous studies for

school-based extracurricular activities and adolescent develop-

ment. Some positive effects of extracurricular sports activities

for academic performance, educational attainment, and psy-

chological adjustment are revealed in the review. Thus, it is

crucial for adolescents to stay active in SBECSA to gain

short-term and long-term benefits.

However, there are some issues with SBECSA staying active

at schools. First, some teachers are not technically able to coach

the sport involved in the SBECSA at their school, even though

full-time teachers generally coach SBECSA (MEXT, 1997,

2010b). According to research performed in Japan, more than

half of SBECSA teachers did not have expertise to coach the

sport offered at their schools (Yamagata Prefecture Board of

Education, 2010). Second, SBECSA teachers are often faced

with physical, monetary, and mental impositions to manage

SBECSA (MEXT, 1997; Japan Senior High School Teachers

and Staff Union, 2008). Third, when SBECSA teachers transfer

to other schools, the SBECSA sometimes becomes inactive

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

(School-based Extracurricular Sport Activity in Junior High

School “Nagano Model” Exploratory Committee, 2004; Naka-

zawa, 2011). Generally, Japanese teachers of public school are

required to transfer to another school once every several years.

Given that expert coaching relates with positive youth devel-

opment (e.g., improving performance skill, confidence, positive

social relationship, and morality) (Cote & Gilbert, 2009; Stew-

art, Lindsay, & Trevor, 2011), expert coaches are essential in

SBECSA.

To resolve these issues, there has been a growing interest

from schools and government in promoting engagement of

external coaches in SBECSA. An external coach is defined as a

person who coaches school-based extracurricular activity in-

stead of or support for teacher (Sasakawa Sports Foundation,

2011). For example, human resources of external coach are a

part-time teacher, sport club coach, leader of a social physical

education program, graduate of the school in question, and

parent of the students (All Japan High School Athletic Federa-

tion, 2012). In 2010, MEXT also recommended that schools

should emphasize engagement of external coaches in SBECSA

(MEXT, 2010b). Actually in many cases, sports activities have

been outsourced in some countries, especially extracurricular

activities in Australia (Macdonald, 2011; Williams, Hay, &

Macdonald, 2011). However, engagement of external coaches

in SBECSA is currently inadequate in Japan. A lack of external

coaches has been reported for certain sports (e.g., wrestling and

archery) (Nippon Junior High School Physical Culture Asso-

ciation, 2010). In addition, the number of external coaches var-

ies greatly depending on prefectural area (Nishijima, Yano, &

Nakazawa, 2007). In such situations, teachers also reported

insufficient or limited coaching frequency and difficulty secur-

ing human resources as important issues associated with re-

cruitment and continuous engagement of external coaches (Mi-

yagi Prefecture Board of Education, 2008; Yamagata Prefecture

Board of Education, 2010).

To promote engagement of external coaches, enhancement of

facilitatory factors and reduction of barriers associated with

teachers’ recruitment and support of external coaches would be

valid strategies. In addition, to clarify how external coaches are

required by teachers is important to target human resources as

external coaches. However, only few Japanese and other coun-

tries’ studies have examined facilitators, barriers to promoting

engagement of external coaches, and qualifications expected of

external coaches among full-time teachers (Miyagi Prefecture

Board of Education, 2008; Yamagata Prefecture Board of Edu-

cation, 2010; Williams, Hay, & Macdonald, 2011). Addition-

ally, most studies were conducted by quantitative methods us-

ing only few question items. Thus, previous researches may not

comprehensively clarify facilitators, barriers, and expected

qualifications. To identify factors associated with recruitment

and continuous engagement of external coaches, qualitative

research such as that involving interview is necessary. There-

fore, the purposes of the present study were to clarify facilita-

tors and barriers associated with recruitment and continuous

engagement of external coaches as well as expected qualifica-

tions of external coaches among full-time school teachers.

Methods

Participants

The participants in the present study were 22 teachers who

worked in either a public junior high school or a public high

school. Participants were selected to vary demographic and

occupational characteristics of the teachers, including type of

school, prefecture, extracurricular activity type, and teaching

subject. They were recruited from 13 prefectural areas, and

managed 10 sports (i.e., basketball, judo, kendo, rowing, rub-

ber-ball baseball, soccer, swimming, table tennis, tennis, and

volleyball). Participants were offered a gift card worth 1000

yen for participating in the research. Participants were informed

of the purpose and design of the research and written informed

consent obtained from each of them. The research proposal was

approved by the ethics board of Waseda University.

Interview Procedure

Before the interview, each participant’s demographic and

occupational characteristics were obtained in writing. A per-

sonal semi-structured interview was then performed. A pilot

study was conducted with two teachers to modify the question

items of the interview. The interview contained the following

predetermined open-ended questions: 1) What are the facilita-

tory factors involved in recruiting and handling external

coaches? 2) What are the barriers to recruiting and handling

external coaches? 3) What qualifications do you expect of ex-

ternal coaches? Participants were asked to respond freely to the

questions. Interview length ranged between 20 and 60 minutes.

All interviews were performed at a convenient place for each

participant, such as a community center or school, between

June and August 2011. All interviews were audiotaped with

agreement from the participants.

Analysis

The KJ method (Kawakita, 1970) was selected for analysis of

the present study. The KJ method is one of qualitative analysis

and it is erected by Jiro Kawakita in Japan. Adaptive possibility

of this method in foreign countries has been indicated (Scupin,

1997). Before the analysis, each recorded interview was tran-

scribed verbatim. All transcribed data were then divided into

individual content by three researchers who were experts in

sports education or psychology. Nearly identical contents were

grouped together and corded as “small categories” in each area

(i.e., facilitator, barrier, and expected qualification). For each

small category, three researchers discussed and defined title of

category. Next, similar small categories were further grouped

into “middle categories”. Finally, the similarities and differ-

ences among the middle categories produced “large categories”.

In a way similar to small category, each middle and large cate-

gory was entitled. Then, initial of facilitator, barrier, and ex-

pected qualification with identical number was added to make

discussion easier.

Results

Characteristics of Participants

Twenty-two teachers participated in the interview (Table 1).

Fourteen teachers were male, and the age of the participants

ranged from 24 to 58 years with an average of 41.3 years

(standard deviation = 11.7). Eleven teachers worked in a junior

high school. Only three of six SBECSA teachers who recruited

external coaches provided some compensation. Teachers spe-

cialized not only in physical education, but also in other subjects

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

Table 1.

Demographic and occupational characteristics of participants.

No. Gender Age School Prefecture Extracurricular

activity type Teaching subject Status

External coach

for

the SBECSA

Compensation

1 M 27 Junior high Shiga Soccer Health and physical education - No -

2 M 29 Junior high Tokyo Rubber-ball baseballMath - No -

3 M 33 Junior high Okinawa Rubber-ball baseballJapanese - Yes No

4 M 35 High Saitama Soccer Math - Yes Yes

5 M 38 Junior high Okinawa Soccer Math - No -

6 M 42 High Akita Kendo Math and information - No -

7 M 48 High Niigata Volleyball Math - Yes No

8 M 49 Junior high Fukuoka Brass band Society - Yes Yes

9 M 49 High Niigata Swimming Health and physical education - No -

10 M 52 High Akita Judo Health and physical education - No -

11 M 55 High Kanagawa Rowing Health and physical education - No -

12 M 56 Junior high Hokkaido - English Principal - -

13 M 57 Junior high Aichi - Art Principal - -

14 M 58 High Hyogo - Health and physical education Assistant principal - -

15 F 24 High Chiba Tennis Math - No -

16 F 26 Junior high Hokkaido Volleyball Health and physical education - No -

17 F 26 Junior high Nagano Table tennis English - Yes Yes

18 F 31 Junior high Aichi Basketball Math - Yes Yes

19 F 31 High Chiba Soccer Health and physical education - No -

20 F 41 High Akita Cooking Home economics - - -

21 F 48 High Kanagawa Volleyball Health and physical education - Yes No

22 F 54 Junior high Fukuoka - Technology and home economicsPrincipal - -

such as math, Japanese, art, and English. Three principals and

one assistant principal were also included among the partici-

pants.

Facilitators

Four large categories of facilitators emerged (Table 2). The

large categories were 1) benefits to SBECSA (e.g., growth of

team members, enhancement of connection with local commu-

nity, prevention of decline in coaching level by changes of

SBECSA teachers); 2) benefits to teachers (e.g., reduced bur-

den on SBECSA teachers, lack of teachers who can technically

coach, growth of SBECSA teachers); 3) system (e.g., compen-

sation, mediation of external coaches); and 4) support (e.g.,

introduction from acquaintances, understanding from the

school). There were 17 middle categories and 50 small catego-

ries for more detail in Table 2.

Barriers

Four large categories of barriers emerged (Table 3). The

large categories were 1) negative influences on SBECSA (e.g.,

disregard of educational aspect, problem behavior, conflict of

coaching policy); 2) negative influences on teachers (e.g., in-

creased burden on SBECSA teachers, inverted status, declina-

tion of teacher’s leadership ability); 3) system (e.g., lack of

compensation, limitations of system, lack of cognition about

system); and 4) support (e.g., opposition from others, lack of

knowledge). There were 17 middle categories and 45 small

categories for more detail in Table 3.

Expected Qualifications

Five large categories of expected qualifications emerged

(Table 4). The large categories were 1) humanity (e.g., charac-

ter, abidance by rules, educational thinking); 2) ability (e.g.,

credentials, technical coaching, experience); 3) cooperativeness

(e.g., communication skill, support of SBECSA teachers); 4)

attributions (e.g., age, occupation); 5) trust (e.g., acquaintances,

selection by SBECSA teacher). There were 14 middle catego-

ries and 52 small categories for more detail in Table 4.

Discussion

To explain the facilitators and barriers of recruiting and han-

dling relationships with external coaches and the qualifications

of external coaches expected by teachers, the personal semi-

structured interview was administered to 22 teachers. As a re-

sult, many novel categories were extracted and categorized in

the present study.

In middle category level, growth of team members, inspiring

morale of team members, improvement of practice quality,

enhancement of connection with local community, growth of

SBECSA teachers as facilitators, and poor relationship, conflict

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

Table 2.

Facilitators of recruitment and handling of external coaches.

Large category (4) Middle category (17) Small category (50)

f1. Improving technic of team members

f2. Team member contact with adults other than teacher

f3. Learning about manners

f4. Positive effect on mental phase

f5. Showing communication with SBECSA teacher and

external coach to team members

f6. Desire to let team members more skillful

Growth of team members

f7. Ease of teaching team members courtesy toward external coach

f8. Increasing motivation of team members

f9. Increasing confidence of team members

f10. Providing stimulation for team members

f11. Having freshness for daily SBECSA

f12. Bracing climate of the SBECSA

f13. Conveying enthusiasm about the sport

Inspiring morale of team members

f14. Conveying expectations of SBECSA teacher to team members

f15. Growing in practice efficiency

f16. Having a diverse coaching method

f17. Being able to show examples of play

Improvement of practice quality

f18. Increasing practice method

f19. Utilizing a human network of external coaches

f20. Connection with local community

Enhancement of connection with local community

f21. Utilizing human resources of local community

f22. Improvement of safety

Improvement of safety f23. Dealing with members’ injuries

f24. Maintaining coaching level when SBECSA teacher changes schools

Prevention of decline in coaching level by changes

of SBECSA teachers f25. Ease of fit the SBECSA which has external coach when

teacher changes schools

Improvement of cogency f26. Having cogency

Benefits to SBECSA

Coordination between SBECSA teacher and parentsf27. Becoming a bridge between SBECSA teacher and parents

f28. Reduced burden on SBECSA teacher

f29. Help for SBECSA teacher

f30. Being able to use time other than that spent on technical coaching

f31. Increasing number of coaches

f32. No need for SBECSA teacher to learn about the sport

Reduced burden on SBECSA teachers

f33. Being able to allow the SBECSA teacher to rest

f34. Inability of SBECSA teacher to coach technically

f35. No teachers available to become an SBECSA teacher

f36. Worry for team members because of no technical coaching

Lack of teachers who can technically coach

f37. Complaints from team members regarding SBECSA teacher

who cannot coach technically

f38. Having other viewpoints

f39. Closeness of external coach with team members

Coaching from various perspectives

f40. Seeing growth of team members in terms of the SBECSA

f41. Promoting SBECSA teacher’s learning about coaching methods

Growth of SBECSA teachers f42. Promoting SBECSA teacher’s learning about attitude toward team members

Benefits to teachers

Busyness of teacher f43. Teachers’ busyness of their work

f44. System that supplies external coach with compensation

f45. Increasing adoptable number of external coaches in system

Compensation

f46. Ease of prescribing to external coach because of supplied compensation

System

Mediation of external coaches f47. System that mediates external coaches

f48. Availability of person to introduce external coach

Introduction from acquaintances f49. Strong connection with relatives Support

Understanding from the school f50. Positive attitude of school regarding engagement of external coach

Note: “f” placed in front of small category means “facilitator”. Additionally, each small category was given identical number for discussion.

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

Table 3.

Barriers to recruitment and handling of external coaches.

Large category (4) Middle category (17) Small category (45)

b1. Past failure to engage external coach

b2. Having trouble with parents

b3. Development of a complex human relationship

b4. Break up of relationship between external coach and team members

Poor relationship

b5. Mismatch of SBECSA teacher and external coach

b6. External coach who cannot give pupils guidance

b7. Lack of understanding of external coach about school policy

b8. Lack of knowledge about team member’s life in school

Disregard of educational aspect

b9. Too much value placed on winning

b10. Physical punishment

b11. Sexual harassment

b12. Ranting

Problem behavior

b13. Misappropriating

b14. Conflicting opinions with external coach

Conflict of coaching policy b15. Becoming practice of SBECSA harder

Negative influences

on SBECSA

Insufficient technical coaching b16. Developing a way to resolve immobilization of the external coach

b17. Increased burden on SBECSA teacher

b18. Attentiveness to external coach

b19. Feeling sorry for external coach because the SBECSA was not managed well

b20. Burden of only seeing external coach’s coaching

Increased burden on SBECSA teachers

b21. The need to try hard if external coach engages in SBECSA

b22. Availability of teacher who can technically coach the sport

b23. Feeling of not having to depend on external coach

Decreased coaching opportunity

for teacher

b24. Loss of enjoyment of coaching

b25. Inconvenient practice time

Difficulty adjusting to external coach b26. No time for meetings

Inverted status b27. Stronger influence of external coach than SBECSA teacher on team members

Negative influences

on teachers

Declination of teacher’s leadership ability b28. Declination of teacher’s leadership ability

b29. Difficulty to cancel the engagement of external coach once engaged in SBECSA

b30. Cumbersome procedure to enroll external coach

b31. Unclear system of introduction of external coaches

b32. Uncertain system

Rudimentary system

b33. Large burden on external coach

b34. Little compensation

b35. Difficulty prescribing to external coach because of a lack

of compensation (volunteer)

Lack of compensation

b36. Burden of compensation

b37. Institutional limitation on number of external coaches

Limitations of system

b38. Institutional limitation on coaching frequency

b39. Little knowledge of system

Lack of cognition about system

b40. Lack of dissemination of system

System

Difficulty finding external coaches b41. Difficulty finding external coaches

b42. Negative attitude of school regarding engagement of external coach

Opposition from others b43. Opposition to accepting external coaches who live outside of the local area

b44. Having had no ideas to promote engagement of external coach

Support

Lack of knowledge b45. Ignorance about engagement of external coach in the school

Note: “b” placed in front of small category means “barrier”. Additionally, each small category was given identical number for discussion.

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

Table 4.

Expected qualifications of external coaches by teachers.

Large category (5) Middle category (14) Small category (52)

e1. A person of integrity

e2. Being trusted by team members

e3. Having passion

e4. Having general intelligence

e5. A person who likes children

e6. Cheerful disposition

e7. A person who does not hide anything

Character

e8. A person who likes sports

e9. No physical punishment

e10. Staying on time

e11. No sexual harassment

e12. Having clear boundaries with team members

Abidance by rules

e13. Abiding by a duty of secrecy

e14. Thinking of the personal progress of team members

e15. Understanding that SBECSA is a school activity

e16. Not only engaging in technical coaching

Educational thinking

e17. Not only valuing winning

Humanity

No business use e18. Not using status of external coach in other business

e19. Expert in physical training

e20. Expert with a high level technique and coach in the short-term

e21. Ability to perform acupuncture or massage

e22. Expert in mental training

e23. A person who can engage more than one SBECSA

Expert

e24. Expert in nutritional guidance

e25. Taken a course in coaching

e26. Having credentials for coaching

Credentials

e27. Having teaching credentials

e28. Being able to coach technically

Technical coaching e29. Having knowledge about technical coaching theory

e30. Having experience in coaching

Ability

Experience e31. Having experience in teaching

e32. Being able to communicate with others

e33. Fit of coaching policy with SBECSA teacher

e34. Not coaching only by the external coach’s opinion

Communication skill

e35. Ability to communicate opinions to SBECSA teacher

e36. Being an adjunct of SBECSA teacher

e37. Coaching regularly

e38. Becoming a bridge between SBECSA teacher and team members

Cooperativeness

Support of SBECSA teachers

e39. Giving main position to SBECSA teacher

e40. Young

e41. Age from 30s to 40s

e42. Elderly

Age

e43. Younger than SBECSA teacher

e44. Civil servant

e45. A person whose job is coaching SBECSA

Attributions

Occupation

e46. Sport store staff

e47. Pupil the teacher once taught

e48. Introduction from acquaintance

e49. Understanding the character of the person

e50. Graduate student of the school

Acquaintances

e51. Parent of the team members

Trust

Selection by SBECSA teacher e52. Selection by SBECSA teacher

Note: “e” placed in front of small category means “expected qualification”. Additionally, each small category was given identical number for discussion.

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

of coaching policy, difficulty adjusting to external coach, lack

of compensation, difficulty finding external coaches as barriers

were consist with previous researches (Ibaraki Prefecture

Sports Promotion Council, 2007; Yamagata Prefecture Board

of Education, 2010; Williams, Hay, & Macdonald, 2011). In

the facilitator for benefits to SBECSA, growth of team mem-

bers was categorized (for example, “f1. improving technic of

team members”, “f2. team member contact with adults other

than teacher”, and “f3. learning about manners”). Especially for

“f2. team member contact with adults other than teacher”, pupil

guidance recommendations published by MEXT indicated that

communication with local adults or coaches improves sociality

and norm consciousness of children (MEXT, 2010a). Therefore,

external coaches have positive effect for socialization of chil-

dren. Additionally, activity with peers and adults cause higher

intrinsic motivation of children than activity with peers only

(Shernoff & Vandell, 2007). The result of the present study (i.e.,

“f8. Increasing motivation of team members” in benefits to

SBECSA) also demonstrated that there are some cases which

recruitment of external coach increases motivation of team

members.

However, disregard of educational aspects (e.g., “b6. external

coach who cannot give pupils guidance” and “b9. too much

value placed on winning”) and problem behavior (e.g., “b10.

physical punishment” and “b12. ranting”) that could have nega-

tive influences on SBECSA were categorized as barriers. In

addition, educational thinking by the external coach (e.g., “e14.

thinking of the personal progress of team members”, “e16. not

only engaging in technical coaching”, and “e17. not only valu-

ing winning”) was reported in humanity as an expected qualifi-

cation. It is suggested that selecting or providing an external

coach who has an educational attitude helps teachers to accept

external coaches and reduce future trouble with the coaching

policy between teachers and external coaches.

For system among both facilitators and barriers, factors re-

lated to understanding from the school were observed (e.g.,

“f50. positive attitude of school regarding engagement of ex-

ternal coach” was a facilitator, and “b42. negative attitude of

school regarding engagement of external coach” was a barrier).

In most situations, school principals have the authority to de-

termine the school’s management policy. Therefore, if the

school principal opposes the recruitment of an external coach, it

is very difficult for a teacher to recruit the external coach. En-

couraging cognition of school principal for the benefits of re-

cruiting external coaches clarified in the present study would

facilitate engagement of external coaches.

In the system of barrier, “b31. unclear system of introduction

of external coaches” was revealed. A previous case study,

aimed to develop a mediation system of external coach, simi-

larly indicated that insufficient disclosure of information dis-

turbed promotion of engagement of external coaches (Kana-

gawa Prefectural Center of Physical Education, 2007; Okatsu,

2011). Disclosing information about external coaches is impor-

tant to enhance teachers’ accessibility to the mediation system.

Insufficient disclosure of information could relate to trust of

external coaches categorized as a large category of expected

qualifications. Teachers required acquaintances such as “e47.

pupil the teacher once taught”, “e50. graduate student of the

school”, and “e51. parent of the team members”. Previous

studies also reported that most SBECSA teachers selected ex-

ternal coaches from acquaintances of the teacher or former

students of the school because it was easier to obtain their in-

formation and they could trust these individuals more than an

unknown person (Kanagawa Prefectural Center of Physical

Education, 2007; Okatsu, 2011). To increase trust of external

coaches, obtaining their personal information is necessary.

Thus, promoting transparency of information (e.g., coaching

policy or how external coaches are introduced) is crucial when

organizations that manage mediation systems of external

coaches, such as prefectural boards of education, modify the

mediation system.

Among the other barriers in system, lack of cognition about

system (for details, “b39. little knowledge of system” and “b40.

lack of dissemination of system”) were notable. Research in

Kanagawa prefecture explained that most external coaches,

teachers, and principals did not know about the coach media-

tion system of Kanagawa prefecture (Kanagawa Prefectural

Center of Physical Education, 2007; Kanagawa Prefecture

Board of Education, 2008). Thus, it is important that the local

government which manages the coach mediation system de-

velops effective strategies with which to advertise the system to

the school and to each teacher to promote engagement of the

external coach.

As negative influences on teachers, inverted status (i.e., “b27.

stronger influence of external coach than SBECSA teacher on

team members”) was identified. In SBECSA management

guide of Ehime prefecture, disrespect for the SBECSA teacher

by team members was reported as an issue arising from exces-

sive dependence of the SBECSA teacher on the external coach

(Ehime Prefecture Board of Education, 2011). To avoid disre-

spect for SBECSA teachers by team members, cooperativeness

such as “e34. not coaching only by the external coach’s opin-

ion”, “e36. being an adjunct of SBECSA teacher”, and “e39.

giving main position to SBECSA teacher” were interpreted as

expected qualifications. As a way, clearly defining the position

and roles of the external coach would enhance teachers’ actions

in recruiting external coaches.

In terms of expected qualifications, there were various opin-

ions regarding the age group of external coaches in attributions.

The study for Slovene coaches mentioned that younger coaches

were more accurate, open to novelties, conscious, agreeable,

and able to manage their own emotions compared with older

coaches. Whereas, older coaches behaved in a more democratic

manner than did younger coaches (Dimec & Kajtna, 2009).

Because characteristics of each coaching method differ de-

pending on the age of the coach, the teachers examined in the

present study explained their preferred coaching method char-

acteristics of external coaches in terms of age group.

In addition, there were different opinions regarding teachers’

burdens, such as “f28. reduced burden on SBECSA teacher” in

benefits to teachers versus “b17. increased burden on SBECSA

teacher” in negative influences on teachers. Recognition of

teachers by providing compensation in system, both of facilita-

tor and barrier, also differed (e.g., “f46. ease of prescribing to

external coach because of supplied compensation” as a facilita-

tor versus “b35. difficulty prescribing to external coach because

of a lack of compensation (volunteer)” as a barrier). Some local

governments have established a system of supplying compen-

sation, although many local governments do not have a media-

tion and compensation supply system (Setagaya Ward Board of

Education, 2009). This explains the regional difference and

teachers’ personal differences in the factors associated with

recruitment and handling of external coaches.

A limitation of the present study is that SBECSA or

K. AOYAGI ET AL.

SBECSA teacher characteristics and regional characteristics are

not differentiated. Future studies must specify the relationship

between the characteristics of SBECSA and teacher and the

categories of facilitator, barrier, and expected qualification.

While there are limitations, the present study extracted and

categorized many novel facilitators, barriers, and expected

qualifications related to the behavior of teachers in recruiting

and handling external coaches. The participants in the present

study had rich characteristic variation (e.g., type of school,

prefectures located in urban and rural areas, extracurricular

activity type, and teaching subject). The diversity of partici-

pants helped to collect exhaustive opinions from teachers, and

expand adoptive possibility for other prefectures in Japan or

other countries faced similar problems such as lack of coach.

Conclusion

The present study identified various and detailed facilitators

and barriers associated with the recruitment and continuous

engagement of external coaches, as well as the expectation of

their qualifications. According to the result of the present study,

it is suggested that the local government which manages the

coach mediation system should promote transparency of exter-

nal coaches’ information and develop strategies with which to

advertise the system to the school and teachers. Similarly, en-

couraging cognition of school principal for the benefits of re-

cruiting external coaches clarified in the present study would be

valuable. As a further suggestion, selecting or providing exter-

nal coaches who have an educational attitude and defining the

positions and roles of external coaches clearly helps teachers to

accept them and reduce future trouble with coaching policies

between teachers and external coaches. Promoting engagement

of external coaches would be made easier by enhancing facili-

tators and ridding barriers associated with recruitment and han-

dling of external coaches as well as targeting human resources

who meet expected qualifications. The findings of the present

study may contribute to promote engagement of appropriate

external coaches, and could provide one of clues to resolve

issues of SBECSA commencing with lack of coach, and

achieves further youth development.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all participating teachers and

the peers who introduced participants. The present study was

supported by the Sasakawa Sports Research Grant (No.

120B3-010) from Sasakawa Sports Foundation, and Global

COE Program “Sport Sciences for the Promotion of Active

Life” from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

and Technology in Japan.

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