Vol.3, No.1, 84-98 (2013) Open Journal of Preventive Medicine
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojpm.2013.31011
Knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about HIV/AIDS of
Sudanese and Bantu Somali immigrant women
living in Omaha, Nebraska*
Shingairai Feresu1,2#, Lynette Smith3
1Department of Epidemiolo gy and Biostatistics, Indiana University, School of Public Health, Bloomington, USA;
#Corresponding Author: [e-mail]
2College of Health Sciences, Walden University, School of Health Sciences, Minneapolis, USA
3Department of Biostatistics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, College of Public Health, Omaha, USA
Received 27 September 2012; revised 30 October 2012; accepted 8 November 2012
ABSTRACT
A needs assessment of the knowledge, attitudes,
practices, and beliefs about HIV/AIDS prevention
was conducted among 100 Sudanese and Bantu
Somali women immigrants aged 19 years and
older, recruited through a community organiza-
tion between April and July 2006. Information
was collected by interview using interpreters to
administer a 60-item test and a 116-item ques-
tionnaire that had been translated into Nuer and
Arabic. Women in this study had low levels of
education, poor knowledge about HIV transmis-
sion and prev ention and saf er sex pr actices, an d
poor attitudes to HIV/AIDS. They believe that
HIV/AIDS is a punishment from God, HIV-posi-
tive people should be separated from society,
carrying a condom indicates having loose mor-
als, women should not experience sexual plea-
sure, and men should decide when and how to
have sexual intercourse. Education, gender, and
cultural beliefs are critical in the spread of HIV.
Effort s to educate immigrant and displaced popu-
lations, particularly women, are essential.
Keywords: HIV Infection; HIV Transmission;
HIV/AIDS Prevention; Condom Use; Safer Sex;
Moral Beliefs about HIV/AIDS
1. INTRODUCTION
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks the
immune system and leaves the body vulnerable to AIDS,
and to a variety of life-threatening infections and cancers
[1,2]. Once a person has AIDS, they are prone infections
by common bacteria, yeast, parasites, and viruses that
usually do not cause serious disease in people with heal-
thy immune systems but can cause fatal illnesses in peo-
ple with AIDS [1,2]. The virus HIV has been found in
saliva, tears, nervous system tissue and spinal fluid,
blood, semen (including pre- seminal fluid, which is the
liquid that comes out before ejaculation), vaginal fluid,
and breast milk [1,2]. However, only blood, semen,
vaginal secretions, and breast milk, have been shown to
transmit infection to others. The virus can be transmitted
through sexual contact including oral, vaginal, and anal
sex; via blood transfusions (now extremely rare in the
US) or needle sharing; and from mother to child, (a
pregnant woman can transmit the virus to the fetus via
the placentas through their shared blood circulation, or
via breastfeeding) [1,2]. Other methods of transmitting
the virus are rare and include accidental needle injury,
artificial insemination with infected donated semen, and
organ transpl a nt at i on wi t h in fect ed organs [1,2].
People who are infected with HIV may have no
symptoms for 10 years or longer, but they can still trans-
mit the infection to others during this symptom-free pe-
riod [1-3]. If the infection is not detected and treated, the
immune system gradually weakens and AIDS develops.
Almost all people infected with HIV, if they are not
treated, will develop AIDS [1-3]. Acute HIV infection
progresses over time (usually a few weeks to months) to
asymptomatic HIV infection (no symptoms) and then to
early symptomatic HIV infection. Later, it progresses to
AIDS (advanced HIV infection with CD4 T-cell count
below 200 cells/mm3) [1-3]. A very small group of pa-
tients who develop AIDS very slowly, or never at all.
These patients are called nonprogressors, an d many seem
to have a genetic difference that prevents the virus from
significantly damaging their immune system [1-3]. The
symptoms of AIDS are mainly the result of infections,
called opportunistic infections, do not normally develop
in people with a healthy immune system. People with
*Funding source: Minority Health Education and Research Office, at
the University of Nebr a ska Medical Center.

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 85
AIDS have had their immune system damaged by HIV
and are very susceptible to these opportunistic infections,
including chills, fever, rash, sweats (particularly at night),
swollen lymph glands, weakness and weight loss [1-3].
In terms of signs, CD4 cells commonly known as T
cell or “helper cells” are used to diagnose if a person
infected with HIV has AIDS or not. According to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a person
may be diagnosed with AIDS if they are HIV-positive
and have a CD4 cell count below 200 cells/mm3, even if
they don’t have an opportunistic infection 1-3]. AIDS
may also be diagnosed if a person develops one of the
opportunistic infections and cancers that occur more
commonly in people with HIV infection [1-3]. These
infections are unusual in people with a healthy immune
system. With a CD4 count below 350 cells/mm3, a per-
son can develop Herpes simplex virus (causes ulcers/
small blisters in the mouth or genitals, happens more
often and usually much more severely in an HIV- infected
person than in someone without HIV infection); Herpes
zoster (shingles) (ulcers/small blisters over a patch of
skin, caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus,
the same virus that causes chickenpox); Kaposi’s sar-
coma (cancer of the skin, lungs, and bowel due to a her-
pes virus (HHV-8). It can happen at any CD4 count, but
is more likely to happen at lower CD4 counts, and is
much more common in men than in women); Non-
Hodgkin’s lymphoma (cancer of the lymph nodes); Oral
or vaginal thrush (yeast (typically Candida albicans) in-
fection of the mouth or vagina); Tuberculosis (infection
by tuberculosis bacteria mostly affects the lungs, but can
also affect other organs such as the bowel, lining of the
heart or lungs, brain, or lining of the central nervous sys-
tem (brain and spinal cord)) [1-3].
With CD4 count below 200 cells/mm3, a person can
develop bacillary angiomatosis (skin sores caused by a
bacteria called Bartonella, which may be caused by cat
scratches) [1-3]; Candida esophagitis (painful yeast in-
fection of the tube throu gh which food travels, called the
esophagus) [1-3]; Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia,
“PCP pneumonia,” previously called Pneumocystis cari-
nii pneumonia, caused by a fungus [1-3]. With CD4
count below 100 cells/mm3, a person can develop AIDS
dementia (worsening and slowing of mental function,
caused by HIV); Cryptococcal meningitis (fungal infec-
tion of the lining of the brain); Cryptosporidiu m diarrhea
(extreme diarrhea caused by a parasite that affects the
gastrointestinal tract); Progressive multifocal leukoen-
cephalopathy (a disease of the brain caused by a virus
(called the JC virus) that results in a severe decline in
mental and physical functions); Toxoplasma encephalitis
(infection of the brain by a parasite, called Toxoplasma
gondii, which is often found in cat feces); causes lesions
(sores) in the brain; wasting syndrome (extreme weight
loss and loss of appetite, cau sed by HIV itself) [1-3]. And
with CD4 count below 50/mm3, the person develops Cy-
tomegalovirus infection (a viral infection that can affect
almost any organ system, especially the large bowel and
the eyes); and Mycobacterium avium (a blood infection
by a bacterium related to tuberculosis) [1-3]. In addition
to the CD4 count, a test called HIV RNA level (or viral
load) may be used to monitor patients. Basic screening
lab tests and regular cervical Pap smears are important to
monitor in HIV infection, due to the increased risk of
cervical cancer in women with a compromised immune
system. Anal Pap smears to detect potential cancers may
also be important in both HIV-infected men and women
[1-3].
There is no cure for AIDS at this time, however, a va-
riety of treatments are available that can help keep
symptoms at bay and improve the quality and length of
life for those who have already developed symptoms
[1-3]. Antiretroviral therapy suppresses the replication of
the HIV virus in the body. A combination of several
antiretroviral drugs, called highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART), has been very effective in reducing
the number of HIV particles in the bloodstream. This is
measured by the viral load (how much free virus is found
in the blood) [1-3]. Preventing the virus from replicating
can improve T-cell counts and help the immune system
recover from the HIV infection [1-3]. HAART is not a
cure for HIV, but it has been very effective for the past
12 years. People on HAART with suppressed levels of
HIV can still transmit the virus to others through sex or
by sharing needles [1-3]. There is good evidence that if
the levels of HIV remain suppressed and the CD4 count
remains high (above 200 cells/mm3), life can be signifi-
cantly prolonged and improved [1-3]. However, HIV
may become resistant to one combination of HAART,
especially in patients who do not take their medications
on schedule every day [1-3]. Genetic tests are now
available to determine whether an HIV strain is resistant
to a particular drug, information which may be useful in
determining the best drug combination for each person,
and adjusting the drug regimen if it starts to fail [1-3].
The tests are performed any time a treatment strategy
begins to fail, and before starting therapy [1-3].
Immigrants are at a higher risk than the general popu-
lation of becoming HIV infected [4-6]. Additionally,
immigrants are more likely than the general population
to have poor access to HIV education or health services
[5-14]. Immigrants are people who go into a foreign
country on their own volition to establish permanent
residence; refugees are those who are uprooted from
their homes when fleeing danger or persecution and who
receive special status in order to be given asylum in a
host country [15,16]. Although the psychological profile
of refugees has little in common with immigrants, there

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
86
is a tendency to group immigrants and refugees together.
However, refugees in the United States can adjust their
official status to immigrants after a year of residence [15].
The Sudanese and Bantu Somali people in the United
States are refugees [17,18], who may or may not have
adjusted their status to immigrants; in this paper, they
will be considered immigr ants.
The Sudanese immigrant population in Omaha, Ne-
braska, which is the highest immigrant population from
Africa in this state, is estimated at 5000 to 7000 [19], but
their HIV prevalence is not known [20]. Sudan is North
Africa and the Middle East region’s worst HIV-affected
country [9,13,21,22]. The prevalence of HIV infection in
Sudan was estimated at 1.6% in 2005, representing
nearly 80% of HIV cases in the region [12,22]. About 2%
of the adult population in Sudan was estimated to be liv-
ing with HIV at the end of 2003 [23]. Sudan’s HIV epi-
demic is concentrated in the south of the country, which
is where most of the immigrant population in Omaha
originated from [19,20]. Studies in Sudan report poor
HIV/AIDS knowledge and high-risk behavior among
southern Sudan populat i ons [22,24,2 5] .
Bantu Somali immigrants in Nebraska are the second
highest African immigrant population in the state. Their
population in Nebraska is estimated at 2500; only 300
live in Omaha [20]. Bantu Somali people historically
were slaves brought to Somalia from Tanzania, Mozam-
bique, and Malawi, and they were marginalized in Soma-
lia [19,26]. Bantu Somalis therefore have little in com-
mon with other Somalis. During the civil war in Somalia
in 1991, about 12,000 Bantu Somalis were displaced to
Kenya, where they faced mistreatment in camps, includ-
ing rape of women and beatings of men. In 1999 their
population in the three refugee camps in Kenya was
about 133,000 [26]. At that time, the United States des-
ignated the Bantu Somali refugees in the camps as per-
secuted and possible refugees to the United States, and
they started arriving in the United States in 2003[19,26].
Somalia, although ranked among the world’s least-de-
veloped countries, has a low prevalence of HIV/AIDS of
0.8% - 0.9% [27], but it is believed that HIV infection
among Bantu Somali immigrants could be higher, as is
common for refugees from war-torn regions [6,8,24,
28-31]. Estimates of HIV prevalence for Bantu Somali in
Kenyan refugee camps or in Nebraska are not known.
HIV prevalence is low in Nebraska, estimated at
0.004% [32,33], but the CD C reported that in 2003, 25%
of all persons with HIV infection had not sought testing
and were unaware of their status [34,35]. Given that HIV
incidence is high in war-torn populations and subse-
quently in refugee populations [6,24,28,29,31], that Su-
dan has high rates of HIV infection, and that the HIV
status for immigrants in Nebraska is not known, HIV
may be more frequent among these immigrants, particu-
larly women. HIV is of increasing concern in women in
Africa [36,37] and it could also be worse for women
immigrants than for male immigrants [6,37]. Women
face a range of HIV-related risk factors and vulnerabili-
ties that men and boys do not, many of which are em-
bedded in the social relations and economic realities of
their societies [36,38-44]. The vulnerability of women
and girls to HIV infection stems not simply from igno-
rance, but from their pervasive disempowerment [36,
38-40,42-44]. Additionally, most of the transmission in
both the Sudanese and Bantu Somali populations is het-
erosexual [40]. We therefore carried out this study to
assess knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and practices re-
garding HIV infection and prevention among Sudanese
and Bantu Somali women immigrants of reproductive
age. Because studies of this nature in this population are
limited, this study was of critical importance.
2. METHODS
2.1. Study Design
A needs assessmen t on the kno wledg e levels, attitud es,
beliefs, and practices about HIV infection and AIDS was
conducted for 100 Sudanese and Bantu Somali immi-
grant women who resided in Omaha, Nebraska, between
April and July 2006. An interview and a test were ad-
ministered to all eligible women who agreed to partici-
pate, had the study explained to them, and initialed an
“unsigned” informed consent. With the help of the inter-
viewers and interpreters, women first completed a test,
and then completed the questionnaire. Two trained re-
search assistants administered the questionnaire to the
women, usually in their homes, with the help of two in-
terpreters, one for Arabic-speaking subjects and the other
for Nuer-speaking subjects. Due to the sensitivity of the
questions, the interviews were administered to each
woman face-to-face in private. Each interview lasted
approximately 2 hours. The median time taken to com-
plete the questionnaire was 30 minutes and ranged from
15 to 150 minutes. A sample size of 100 women would
give us 80% power to detect the difference of 25% in
correct knowledge of HIV between demographic groups.
Since this study was descr iptive, this number was appro-
priate.
2.2. Participants
Sudanese and Bantu Somali immigrant women aged
19 years and older who resided in Omaha, Nebraska,
were recruited for this study. This population included
women born in Africa and first generation children born
in the United States. Women were recruited to this study
with the assistance of the Southern Sudan Community
Association, a local resettlement organization. A con-
venience sample of women from local homeless shelters,

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 87
refugee resettlement centers, churches, and individual
homes was approached to participate in the study.
2.3. Measures
Previously validated questionnaires that have been
used by organizations such as the World Health Organi-
zation, the United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS, and
the CDC, and in similar studies [19,45,46] were adapted
for this study. The questionnaire and pretest were trans-
lated into Arabic and Nuer and were pilot tested before
use. The test contained 50 yes/no questions on mode of
transmission of HIV infection, safe sex practices, and
beliefs about HIV infection. The questionnaire aimed at
soliciting information on the knowledge levels, attitudes,
beliefs, and practices about HIV infection and AIDS. The
questionnaire contained 116 items and was divided into
five major sections: 1) demographic; 2) socioeconomic
status; 3) knowledge about HIV/AIDS and safer sex; 4)
attitudes about HIV/AIDS, and 5) knowledge about risk
behavior.
2.4. Knowledge Scores
Knowledge scores were created from the pretest ques-
tions for three categories: transmission, safe sex, and
protection. The transmission score is the number of cor-
rect answers out of 14 possible from questions about
HIV/AIDS transmission. The safe sex score is the num-
ber of correct answers out of 5 possible from questions
about safe sex. The protection score is the number of
correct answers out of 9 possible from questions about
HIV/AIDS p r o t ect i on.
2.5. Statistical Analysis
Fisher’s exact test was used to compare individual
questions by de mograph ic groups . The know ledge scores
were compared between the groups with either t-tests or
ANOVA. If significant differences were found pairwise,
comparisons were made, with p-values adjusted for mul-
tiple comparisons using Tukey’s method. All analyses
were performed using SAS 9.1 (SAS Institute, Cary,
NC).
2.6. Ethical Considerations
A letter of support and permission to study this popu-
lation was obtained from the Southern Sudan Commu-
nity Association, and Institutional Review Board ap-
proval was obtained from the University of Nebraska
Medical Center. Given the high level of stigma and sen-
sitivity of the questions asked in this needs assessment,
interviewers emphasized that participants were free to
decline to answer any questions anytime during the in-
terview. Interpreters were trained regarding confidential-
ity. A total of 100 women who met the eligib ility criteria
were interviewed face-to-face with the assistance of in-
terpreters after an unsigned informed consent form had
been explained to them and they had verbally agreed to
participate and had in itialed the consent form.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Demographic Characteristics of the
Respondents
Demographic characteristics of the study population
are summarized in Table 1. Of the 100 women who were
interviewed, 86 were Sudanese immigrants and 14 were
Bantu Somali immigrants. Prominent tribes were Nuer
(26%) and Dinka (24%), and most women (64%) had
lived in Omaha between 1 and 5 years. About 55% of the
women were aged between 25 and 35 years, their median
age was 30 years, ranging between 19 and 47 years.
About 67% of the women was either married or liv ing as
married. Twenty-eight percent of the women had no
education, 36% had a primary school education, 22%
had a high school education, and 14% had a college
education. The number employed (49%) was almost the
same as the number who were not employed. A few
women (29%) earned $1000 per month and more, and
the majority of the women (87%) and their families
rented a home.
3.2. Health History and Sexual Patterns
Table 2 summarizes the health and sexual history of
this study population. In the last year, 24% of the women
had not had a regular sex partner, 25% had had two to
four sexual partners, and 76% had had one sexual partner.
About 71% of the women had been pregnant after com-
ing to the United States. Thirty-two percent had not been
tested for HIV (n = 10) or were unsure (n = 13) if they
had been tested. Seven of these 10 (70%) had not been
told where to go to be tested, although 6 of 10 (60%)
were interested in having an HIV test, as were 73% of all
the women in the study. Two women had been told they
had HIV infection, and 3 women had been told they had
a sexually transmitted disease.
3.3. Knowledge about HIV/AIDS
About 81% of the women knew that HIV causes or
leads to AIDS, 61% thought results from HIV tests are
always right, and 22% thought HIV/AIDS can be cured.
About 76% of the women knew that the right medicines
can help people who have HIV/AIDS live longer. Com-
pared to Sudanese women, Bantu Somali women were
less likely to agree that HIV causes or leads to AIDS (p =
0.010) and were less likely to agree that the right medi-

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
88
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of 100 Sudanese and Bantu Somali women interviewed on the HIV/AIDS Project, 2006. Mean
HIV/AIDS knowledge scores are given for each characteristic.
Transmission Knowledge S c o reSafe Sex Knowledge Score Protection Knowledge S core
Freq.Percent Mean (SD)P-value Mean (SD) P-value Mean (SD) P-value
Country of origin
Sudan 86 86% 10.2 (2.4) 0.27 3.2 (1.2) 0.0014 6.3 (1.8) 0.56
Somalia 14 14% 9.5 (2.2) 1.3 (1.7) 6.6 (1.6)
Tribe
Nuer 26 26% 9.7 (1.9) 0.088 3.3 (1.2) <0.0001 6.0 (1. 9) 0.0047
Dinka 24 24% 10.7 (2.5) 2.9 (1.0) 6.9 (1.2)
Acholi 7 7% 8.4 (4.5) 2.6 (2.0) 4.4 (3.0)
Kiziguwa 9 9% 9.7 (1.8) 2.0 (1.8) 7.3 (1.6)
Maimai 5 5% 9.2 (2.9) 0 (0) 5.4 (0.9)
Other 29 29% 10.8 (1.7) 3.4 (1.0) 6.7 (1.5)
Years lived in Omaha
<1 15 15% 10.3 (1.8) 0.77 3.0 (1.2) 0.49 6.9 (1.7) 0.32
1-5 64 64% 10.2 (2.6) 2.8 (1.5) 6.4 (1.7)
>=5 21 21% 9.8 (1.9) 3.2 (1.2) 6.0 (2.2)
Age group
<25 22 22% 10.0 (2.9) 0.96 2.5 (1.6) 0.24 6.6 (2.1) 0.81
25-35 55 55% 10.2 (2.0) 3.0 (1.3) 6.3 (1.6)
>35 23 23% 10.1 (2.7) 3.0 (1.4) 6.3 (2.0)
Marital status
Married/Living together 67 67% 10.4 ( 1.8) 0.27 2.9 (1.5) 0.87 6.6 (1.6) 0.34
Single 11 11% 9.5 (3.7) 2.7 (1.5) 6.3 (2.5)
Sepa-
rated/Divorced/Widowed 22 22% 9.6 (3.0) 3.0 (1.2) 5.9 (1.9)
Education
No education 28 28% 9.6 (2.0) 0.055 2.1 (1.6) 0.0010 6.1 (1.7) 0.76
Primary school 36 36% 9.9 (2.4) 3.0 (1.3) 6.6 (2.0)
High school 22 22% 10.3 (2.6) 3.1 (1.0) 6.3 (1.7)
College 14 14% 11.6 (1.9) 3. 9 (1.0) 6.6 (1.7)
Employed
Yes 49 49% 10.5 (1.8) 0.096 3.3 (1.0) 0.0094 6.4 (1.7) 0.89
No 51 51% 9.8 (2.7) 2.6 (1.6) 6.4 (1.9)
Family income/month
<$500 13 13% 9.2 (4.5) 0.062 1.9 (1.2) 0.0095 5.9 (2.4) 0.40
$501 - 1000 21 21% 9.7 (1.9) 3.3 (1.1) 6.0 (1.8)
$1001 - 1500 17 17% 10.2 (1.3) 3.2 (1.0) 6.2 (1.3)
>$1500 12 12% 11.8 (1.8) 3.6 (1.2) 6.8 (2.2)
Unreported 37 37% 10.1 (1. 9) 2.6 (1.6) 6.7 (1.6)
Residence
Own home 11 11% 10.6 (1.7) 0.42 3.2 (1.1) 0.49 6.5 (2.1) 0.71
Rent 87 87% 10.0 (2.4) 2.9 (1.4) 6.3 (1.8)
Other 2 2%
Transmission Knowledge Score is scored from 0 to 14. Safe Sex Knowledge Score is scored from 0 to 5. Protection Knowledge Score is scored from 0 to 10.

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 89
Table 2. HIV infection related health history for 100 Sudanese and Bantu Somali women interviewed on the HIV/AIDS project;
2006.
Question Frequency Percent
Do you have a husband or a re g ula r sex partner?
Yes 76 76.0
No 24 24.0
Number of sex partners
0 3 3.0
1 71 71.0
2 - 4 23 23.0
Unreported 3 3.0
How many sex partners have h ad in the p ast 1 year
0 24 24.0
1 76 76.0
Have you been pregnant since you came to the United S tates?
Yes 71 71.0
No 26 26.0
Not sure 3 3.0
If you had been pregna n t since coming to the USA, were you e v e r tested for HIV?
Yes 47 67.1
No 10 14.3
Not sure 13 18.6
If you had been pregnant since coming to the USA and not tested for HIV, were you told where to go to b e
tested for HIV?
Yes 6 16.7
No 25 69.4
Not sure 5 13.9
If you were tested for HIV, what was the result?
Negative 53 53.0
Not sure 45 45.0
No response 2 2.0
Have you ever been told that you ha ve HIV/AIDS?
Yes 2 2.0
No 87 87.0
Not sure 11 11.0
Have you ever been told that you have a sexually transmitted disease such as Chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis
Yes 3 3.0
No 94 94.0
Not sure 3 3.0
Would you like to have an HIV test?
Yes 73 73.0
No 26 26.0
Not sure 1 1.0

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
90
cines can help people who have HIV/AIDS live longer (p
= 0.024). Women who had no education or a primary
school education were more likely than women with a
high school or college educatio n to indicate that HIV test
results are always right (p = 0.001), while women with a
high school or college education were more likely to
indicate that there are things one can do to protect one-
self against HIV/AIDS (p = 0.018).
3.4. Knowledge about Modes of HIV
Transmission
Fourteen questions addressed the ways that HIV can
be transmitted and knowledge of transmission by bodily
fluids [data not shown]. About 50% of the women re-
ported that HIV can be transmitted by a mosquito or
other insect bite. At least 14% of the women thought
HIV can be transmitted by swimming in the same pool as
someone who has HIV/AIDS, and 16% were not sure.
About 36% of the women thought that HIV can be
transmitted by sharing a spoon or fork with someone
who has HIV/AIDS. Most women (82%) knew that
HIV/AIDS cannot be transmitted by sharing food with
someone who has HIV/AIDS. The majority of the
women (85%) knew that HIV/AIDS cannot be transmit-
ted by shaking hands with someone who has HIV/AIDS.
Sixteen percent of the women reported that HIV/AIDS
can be transmitted by exposure to the coughing or
sneezing of someone who has HIV/AIDS. Regarding
whether HIV/AIDS can be transmitted by kissing some-
one on the mouth who has HIV/AIDS, 39% agreed, 39%
disagreed, and the rest were not sure. About 20% of the
women reported that HIV can be transmitted by using a
public bathroom.
Bantu Somali women were more likely than Sudanese
women to indicate that HIV/AIDS can be transmitted by
a mosquito bite or other insect bite (p = 0.002), by
swimming in the same pool as someone who has the
disease (p = 0.0001), by sharing a spoon or folk with
someone who has the disease (p = 0.04), by kissing
someone on the mouth who has the disease (p = 0.032),
and by using a public bathroom (p = 0.042). These find-
ings were similar for women of all education levels (p
values = 0.001, 0.03, 0.05, and 0.02 for women with no
education, a primary school education, a high school
education, and a college education, respectively). Unem-
ployed women (p = 0.012) were more likely than em-
ployed women to indicate that one can get HIV/AIDS
from a mosquito bite.
In general women had good knowledge on the trans-
mission of HIV/AIDS by bodily fluids. The majority of
women (93%) knew that HIV/AIDS can be transmitted
by sharing a razor for shaving with someone who has
HIV/AIDS, by reusing sharp medical equipment that has
bodily fluids on it from someone who had HIV/AIDS,
and by using the same needle to take drugs as someone
who has HIV/AIDS. About 96% of the women knew that
HIV/AIDS can be transmitted by getting a blood transfu-
sion from someone who has HIV/AIDS. About 77% of
the women believed that a mother who has HIV/AIDS
can transmit it to her child during childbirth. Bantu So-
mali women were less likely than Sudanese women (p =
0.005) to report that a mother can transmit HIV/AIDS to
her child during childbirth, as were unemployed com-
pared to employed women (p = 0.024). Also, 76% of the
women knew that a mother who has HIV/AIDS can
transmit it to her child by breastfeeding.
The above 14 questions were scored as correct and
incorrect responses (Table 1). The overall mean for
transmission score was 10.1 (SD = 2.3, range 0 to 14).
There were no statistically significant differences in the
mean score of women responding co rrectly to HIV /AIDS
transmission questions by country of origin, tribe, the
number of years lived in Omaha, age group, marital
status, education, employment status, family income, or
owning or renting their residence.
3.5. Knowledge of Safer Sex
Women had mixed views on sexual transmission of
HIV/AIDS [data not shown]: 27% did not know that a
person can get HIV/AIDS the first time he or she has sex,
24% disagreed or were unsure that safe sex means hav-
ing protected sex, and 32% disagreed or were unsure that
protected sex means your partner wearing a condom
even for foreplay. Seventy-six percent of the women
agreed that heterosexual sex means men having sex with
a woman, and 43% disagreed or were unsure that homo-
sexual sex means men having sex with men or women
having sex with women. Women had poor knowledge
about anal sex: 13% disagreed that anal sex is performed
only when a man is having sex with another man, and
41% were not sure.
Women who had a high school or college education
were more likely th an women who had no education or a
primary school education to agree that safe sex means
having protected sex (p = 0.01), protected sex means
your partner wearing a condom even for foreplay (p =
0.01), and anal sex is performed only when a man is
having sex with another man (p = 0.01). Bantu Somali
women were more likely than Sudanese women to agree
that safe sex means having protected sex (p = 0.001),
protected sex means your partner wearing a condom
even for foreplay (p = 0.02), and anal sex is performed
only when a man is having sex with another man (p =
0.05). Bantu Somali women were more likely than Su-
danese women to report that heterosexual sex is men
having sex with women (p = 0.0001) and homosexual
sex is men having sex with men and women having sex
with women (p = 0.02). Employed women were more

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 91
likely than unemployed women to indicate that safe sex
means having protected sex (p = 0.03) and that hetero-
sexual sex means men having sex with women, (p =
0.02).
Five questions formed the scores on knowledge about
safer sex (Ta ble 1). The overall mean for safe sex score
was 2.9 (SD = 1.4, range 1 to 5). There were statistically
significant differences in the mean score of women get-
ting correct responses for knowledge about safer sex by
country of origin, tribe, education, employment status,
and family income. Tribal differences were found be-
tween MaiMai and Acholi, Dinka, Kiziguwa, and Neur.
There were marginal group differences for no education
compared to a primary school education (p = 0.064) but
significant differences between no education compared
to a high school education (p = 0.04) and no education
compared to a college education (p = 0.001). Also, there
were group differences between those with income of
<$500 compared to those with in come $501 - $10 00 (p =
0.038) and between those with income < $500 compared
to those with income > $1500 (p = 0.021).
3.6. Knowledge about Sexual Protection
Nine questions formed the knowledge about sexual
protection score, and women had varied responses on
these issues. Seventy-six percent knew that wearing an
amulet around the waist does not protect a person against
HIV/AIDS, only 27% thought that limiting the number
of people one has sex with protects a person against
HIV/AIDS, and 19% did not know that taking antibiotic
drugs before having sex does not protect a person against
HIV/AIDS. Thirty-three percent of the women did not
know that using a condom during sex protects a person
against HIV/AIDS, and 44% of the women disagreed or
were unsure that not having sex pro tects a person again st
HIV/AIDS.
Bantu Somali women were more likely than Sudanese
women to believe that wearing an amulet around the
waist protects a person against HIV/AIDS (p = 0.01).
About 21% of the women agreed or were unsure that
having sex only with people who look healthy protects a
person against HIV/AIDS, and 29% of the women
thought that men who do not have sex with other men are
protected against HIV/AIDS. Only 45% of the women
believed that not having sex with prostitutes (sex work-
ers) protects a person against HIV/AIDS, and about 16%
of the women believed that seeing a traditional healer
does not protect a person against HIV/AIDS. Women
with a high school or college education were more likely
than uneducated women or women with a primary school
education to believe that not having sex with prostitutes
(sex workers) protects a person against HIV/AIDS (p =
0.03). About 55% of the women agreed that using sterile
needles to inject drugs protects a person against HIV/
AIDS; 35% di sagr eed, and 10 % we re n ot sure.
The overall mean for protection score was 6.4 (SD =
1.8, range 1 to 9). Only the mean scores for tribe were
statistically significantly different from each other. The
mean score was different for Acholi compared to Dinka,
Kiziguwa, and other. There were no statistically signifi-
cant differences in mean score of knowledge about pro-
tection against HIV/AIDS by country of origin, years
lived in Omaha, age group, marital status, education,
employment status, family income, or whether they owned
or rented their residence.
3.7. Beliefs about Safer Sex
In terms of condom use, women were asked several
questions about using condoms (Table 3). About 84%
had not used a condom, 53% indicated that they would
not want to use a condom without spousal or partner ap-
proval, and 61% indicated they would still have sex
without a condom even if they suspected infidelity.
Women were asked about their beliefs on condom use:
36% agreed with the statement, “I believe that that using
a condom during sexual intercourse reduces sexual
pleasure,” and 25% agreed with the statement, “I believe
that if I had sex several times with a man, he would be
safe, no need to use condom.” Women with no education
or a primary school education were more likely than
women with a high school or college education to agree
with that statement (p = 0.001). Women who had used a
condom were more likely than women who had not used
a condom to believe that people can get HIV the first
time they have sex (p = 0.018) and that people with HIV
should be separated from society (p = 0.018). Women
who refused to have sex without a condom if a partner
had been unfaithful were more likely than women who
used a con dom to agre e that the righ t medici nes can help
people live longer (p = 0.010), HIV can be transmitted by
sharing needles (p = 0.049), a mother who has HIV/
AIDS can transmit it to her child by breastfeeding (p =
0.031), safe sex means protected sex (p = 0.021), and
heterosexual sex means men having sex with women (p
= 0.0001). About 59% disagreed with the statement, “I
believe that I will be safe if I perform oral sex without
protection.” The women’s intentions about safer sex
were also solicited (Table 3). Ninety-four percent of the
women intended to have sex with one partner. About
27% of the women disagreed with the statement, “I in-
tend to and make sure that if I have sex with a new part-
ner, they are tested and retested at 6 months,” with Bantu
Somali women being less likely th an Sud an ese women to
agree with that statement (p = 0.05).
3.8. Moral Beliefs about HIV/AIDS
Women were asked to respond to statements on their

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
92
Table 3. Beliefs safer sex for 100 Sudanese and Bantu Somali women interviewed on the HIV/AIDS project; 2006.
Belief Frequency Percent
Have you ever used a condom as a means of protection against HIV/AIDS with your sexual partner
Yes 13 13.00
No 84 84.00
Not sure 3 3.00
The reason I do not prefer a condom is because my husba nd or partner does not approve of it
Agree 53 53.0
Disagree 26 26.0
Not sure 21 21.0
If you suspect that your husband or regular partner is having sex with other women do you refuse to have sex with him
without a condom
Yes 61 61.00
No 34 34.00
Not sure 5 5.00
I believe that that using a condom during sexual intercourse reduces sexual pleasure
Agree 36 36.0
Disagree 18 18.0
Not sure 46 46.0
I believe that if I had se x several times with a man, he would be safe, no need to use condom
Agree 25 25.0
Disagree 53 53.0
Not sure 22 22.0
I believe that I will be safe if I perform oral sex wit hout protection
Agree 13 13.0
Disagree 59 59.0
Not sure 28 28.0
I believe that only m en who have sex with men and those who use illegal drugs get HIV/AIDS
Agree 43 43.0
Disagree 38 38.0
Not sure 19 19.0
I intend to have sex with one partner
Agree 94 94.0
Disagree 5 5.0
Not sure 1 1.0
I intend to and make sure that if I have sex with a new partner, they are tested and retested at 6 months
Agree 73 73.0
Disagree 16 16.0
Not sure 11 11.0

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 93
Table 4. Moral and gender beliefs about HIV/AIDS for 100 Sudanese and Bantu Somali women interviewed on the HIV/AIDS pro-
ject; 2006.
Belief Frequency Percent
I believe that people ge t HIV/AIDS as a punishm e nt for doing something wrong
Agree 38 38.0
Disagree 56 56.0
Not sure 6 6.0
I believe that someone who gets HIV/AIDS deserves to suffer
Agree 34 34.0
Disagree 57 57.0
Not sure 9 9.0
I believe that people with HIV/AIDS should be separated from the rest of society
Agree 46 46.0
Disagree 45 45.0
Not sure 9 9.0
I believe that getting AIDS is a punishment from God
Agree 25 25.0
Disagree 68 68.0
Not sure 7 7.0
I believe that God decid es w h o g e t s HIV/AIDS
Agree 11 11.0
Disagree 82 82.0
Not sure 7 7.0
I believe that women should not experience pleasure during s e x
Agree 15 15.0
Disagree 63 63.0
Not sure 22 22.0
I believe that men should make the decision about when and ho w t o h a ve se x ua l i n te rcourse
Agree 40 40.0
Disagree 53 53.0
Not sure 7 7.0
moral beliefs about HIV/AIDS (Table 4). Thirty-eight
percent of the women agreed with the statement, “I be-
lieve that people get HIV/AIDS as a punishment for do-
ing something wrong”; 34% agreed with the statement,
“I believe that someone who gets HIV/AIDS deserves to
suffer”; 46% agreed with the statement, “I believe that
people with HIV/AIDS should be separated from the rest
of society”; and 25% agreed with the statement, “I be-
lieve that getting AIDS is a punishment from God.” But,
82% disagreed with the statement, “I believe that God
decides who gets HIV/AIDS.”
Bantu Somali women were more likely than Sudanese
women to agree that God decides who gets HIV/AIDS (p
= 0.02). With regards to of how women viewed their role
versus men, in terms of sexual intercourse (Table 3 ), at
least 15% of the women agreed with the statement, “I
believe that women should not experience pleasure dur-
ing sex,” and 40% agreed with the statement, “I believe

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
94
that men should make the decision about when and how
to have sexual intercourse.”
4. DISCUSSION
We had a unique opportunity to interview Sudanese
and Bantu Somali immigrant women living in Omaha,
Nebraska, on their knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs re-
garding HIV/AIDS. We found that a quarter of these
immigrant women had more than one sex partner and
that about 70% had not been tested for HIV but ex-
pressed a desire to be tested. Employment rate was high
among this group. The education level was low among
this group and is of great concern, as it seems to impact
knowledge about HIV infection and its transmission.
Condom use among these women was very low and is
another source of concern, particularly because 25% had
more than one sex partner. Moral issues and gender dis-
parities as they relate to sex and acquiring HIV infection
still play a significant role in this population.
Many women in this group had a regular sex partner,
but a worrisome 23% of the respondents had two to four
sex partners. This is not an uncommon finding for immi-
grant populations, given the difficult situation they find
themselves in, which makes them prone to promiscuous
behavior, as was reported in other studies [24,31,46-48].
A significant number of women had been pregnant after
they came to the United States, most of who had not been
tested for HIV infection, did not know where they could
be tested, wanted to be tested. Systems factors in Omaha
may have affected the women’s ability to access volun-
tary counseling and testing for HIV. Often, structural,
cultural, and linguistic barriers; stigma; discrimination;
xenophobia; and exploitation decrease or discourage ac-
cess to HIV/AIDS education or health services [6,15-19,
47-53].
The employment rate is quite high for this population,
where 50% were employed compared to 26.5% of women
in Sudan being in the labor force and 7.6% formally em-
ployed in professional jobs in 2004 [54]. Refugees in
Nebraska can get cash assistance and medical assistance
only for the first eight months after they arrive in the
United States and get a certain percent of benefits on a
sliding scale thereafter only if they are employed or at-
tending school [55]. Therefore, most women have to
work. The available benefits are minimal and the salaries
in general are very low (29% earned $1000 per month or
more). Unemployment can result in risky sexual behavior,
sex in return for favors, and prostitution. Studies have
shown that lack of employment, economic difficulties,
and poverty, are risk factors for risky sexual behavior and
HIV [47,56-58].
We found that the level of education among this group
was low, a significant cause of concern. A significant
proportion of the study population (36%) had only a
primary school education, 28% had no education at all,
22% had a high school education, and only 14% had at-
tended college. A low level of education is common in
refugee populations [19,46] and in African countries,
where the average literacy rate was 60%, adult literacy at
46%, in 2000 [59] In most African countries, education
of women is nonexistent or minimal. According to World
Bank estimates for 2002, the literacy rate in adults aged
15 years and older was 60 percent. In 2000 the compara-
ble figure was almost 58 percent (69 percent for males,
46 percent for females); youth illiteracy (ages 15 - 24)
was estimated at 23 percent, and a gender gap of 23%
[60]. Somalia, although not necessarily representative of
Bantu Somali immigrants, has not reported its literacy
level since 1990 [60]. The link between education and
risk of HIV is unclear. Studies in Africa have linked
higher education level with increased risk of HIV infec-
tion [61-63]. In essence, having an education cannot be
interpreted as having significant knowledge of HIV and
its transmission. However, other studies have found a
protective effect of a higher education level [36,62,64,
65].
Although the role of higher education in understanding
HIV infection is debatable, education may facilitate be-
havior change and promote the adoption of safer sexual
behaviors, including condom use [36,51,63]. In their
review, Hargreaves and Glynn concluded that new HIV
infections were increasingly seen among less educated
women [61].
There was a general lack of knowledge among the
women in this study about HIV/AIDS and whether it
could be cured, thus was more evident among Bantu
Somali and less educated women had poor knowledge.
Bantu Somali women have lived in refugee camps since
the 1990s [18,26], where there would have been little
opportunity to learn about health issues relating to HIV
infection. Conflicting notions exist on the relationship
between lack of knowledge and HIV/AIDS infection,
with some studies some studies reporting a connection
[24,43-46,49,56], while others studies not finding that
relationship [6,66].
In general, this study population had poor knowledge
about HIV transmission. Regarding the common HIV
transmission myths, there was poor knowledge on HIV
transmission for Bantu Somali, less educated, unem-
ployed women, and newer immigrants. These results
show a lack of knowledge and understanding of HIV
transmission, poses a significant risk for acquiring HIV
and other sexually transmitted diseases. Some studies
found similar findings to ours [19,24,43,45,46], some
found mixed results [ 24,49-50,64 ], while other s found no
relationship [6,67].
Knowledge among this study’s participants on trans-

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 95
mission by bodily fluids was encouraging, and this find-
ing is consistent with other studies [49,68]. Half of the
women knew that using sterile needles could protect a
person against HIV infection, but this mode of transmis-
sion is responsible for fewer cases of HIV transmission
than other modes. Knowledge of mother-to-child trans-
mission was fair, an uncommon finding by other studies
[67], and three quarters of the single and unemployed
and Bantu Somali women had the poorest knowledge.
On scoring of the 14 questions on HIV transmission,
there were differences among these women by socio-
demographic characteristics.
Less educated, unemployed, and Bantu Somali women
had poor knowledge of safer sex. Differences for this
population in knowledge of safer sex were also seen
based on tribe and income level. About 25% of the
women did not understand the meaning of protected sex.
Oral sex was seen as protective. The poor knowledge on
safer sex is consistent with other studies [19,44,46].
Some of the women had a moderate amount of knowl-
edge about sexual pro tection myths, as has been reported
by other studies [19,46,58,68], but Bantu Somali women
and newer immigrant women had poor knowledge on
this issue. Many study participants judged a HIV risk by
a person’s appearance and whether a person engaged in
prostitution. Newer immigrant women still believe that
people can protect themselves against HIV infection by
consulting a traditional healer. Tribal differences were
seen in responses to sexual protection questio ns.
The low rates of condom use in this group are another
source of concern: 84% of the women had never used a
condom. Of these, 53% do not use a condom because
their partner does not approve, and 25% believe that
having sex several times with a man reduces the chances
of getting infected. Only two-thirds of the women would
refuse to have sex if they suspected that their husband
was promiscuous. Use of condoms with regard to HIV
infection prevention has always been challenging, as
reported by other studies from Africa [40,43,44,66-68],
and from other refugee populations [6,19,46,49]. The
finding that condoms were thought to reduce sexual
pleasure is in agreement with findings from other studies
[40,45,46,48,49,66]. More worrisome was that a quarter
of the women reported that if they had used condoms
during sex for a period of time with a partner, they would
feel safe.
Moral issues played a significant role in this popula-
tion: over a third of the women connected acquiring HIV
infection to immorality and saw HIV infection as a pun-
ishment from God, although a few saw this as God’s will.
Other studies have found similar findings [43,51,66].
Men were seen as having control during sex. This finding
is common in African countries, which are patriarchal
and where women are not empowered, including about
having control over their bodies [40,44,66]. Intentions
toward safer sex for the most part were positive, but ex-
cept among Bantu Somali, separated, divorced, and
widowed wom e n.
5. STRENGTH OF THE STUDY
Nonetheless, this study is one of the few to be carried
out in this population and the first women-only study in
this population. This study under scores th e importance of
women in immigrant populations, as women’s views and
knowledge tend to affect the health of families in a given
population. The study is the first step in identifying needs
for HIV/AIDS education, and if followed by targeted
health education messages, will be critical for preventing
HIV/AIDS burden in similar populations.
6. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study had some limitations. A potential difficulty
was the language barrier, which was minimized by em-
ploying a Sudanese student, using interpreters, and trans-
lating the consent form and questionnaires. It is possible
that just by explaining some of the survey items during
the interviews could have influenced the responses to-
wards more positive picture about the knowledge of
HIV/AIDS. Another concern was the sensitiv ity of ques-
tions asked, which was overcome by using interviewers
who were mature black females and recent immigrants
from the same or an adjacent country as the study popu-
lation. A convenience sample was drawn for this study,
and thus may not be representative of the Sudanese and
Bantu Som a l i wome n in Omaha, Nebraska.
7. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, our results suggest that a lower level of
education impacts knowledge of transmission and pre-
vention of HIV. Therefore there is need to develop an
education program to specifically target these women
and educate them about HIV transmission and the means
by which they can protect themselves. The fact that few
women had been tested for HIV and that the majority of
these women expressed the desire to be tested may indi-
cate some disconnect between the needs and the delivery
system priorities, and thus needs to be addressed. Lim-
ited data, particularly for women, on HIV/AIDS exists in
this population. This stud y underscores the need to shape
policy regarding access to care for immigrants. Thus,
studies such as this one will assist policy makers and
resettlement agencies to plan for interventions in these
communities. Although our study interviewed 100
women, there is need to expand services to more immi-
grant women in Nebraska. Health education programs
which are culturally sens itive will help reduce barriers to
HIV/AIDS education in this immigrant po pulation and in
similar settings.

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
96
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project was funded through the Minority Health
Education and Research Office at the University of Ne-
braska Medical Center. The authors acknowledge Mr. Tor
Kuet of the Southern Sudan Community Association and
his staff; Anna Odipo-Nyambok, and Christine Ross who
were research assistants; and Richard Stacy, professor of
Health, Physical Education and Recreation, College of
Education, University of Nebraska at Omaha, for the work
they did on the project. We also acknowledge Ireen
Bwalya, graduate assistant, for helping with preparation
of this manuscript, and Sue Nardie for editing this
manuscript.
REFERENCES
[1] UNAIDS (2000) Joint United Nations programme on
HIV/AIDS. Migrant populations and HIV/AIDS. The
development and implementation of programmes: Theory
methodology and practice. Geneva.
http://data.unaids.org/publications/IRC-pub01/jc397-migr
antpop_en.pdf
[2] UNAIDS (2001) Joint United Nations programme on
HIV/AIDS. Population mobility and AIDS. UNAIDS
technical update.
http://data.unaids.org/Publications/IRC-pub02/JC513-Pop
Mob-TU_en.pdf
[3] Rosenthal, L., Scott, D.P., Kelleta, Z., Zikarge, A., Mo-
moh, M., Lahai-Momoh, R.M.W. and Baker, A. (2003)
Assessing the HIV/AIDS health services needs of African
immigrants to Houston. AIDS Education and Prevention,
15, 570-580. doi:10.1521/aeap.15.7.570.24047
[4] UNAIDS (2004) Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS. Migrants’ right to health. Unaids/Iom State-
ment on HIV/AIDS-related travel restrictions. UNAIDS
technical update.
http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/
shared/mainsite/activities/health/UNAIDS_IOM_stateme
nt_travel_restrictions.pdf
[5] UNAIDS (2004) Report on the global HIV/AID epidemic:
4th global report.
http://data.unaids.org/Global-Reports/Bangkok-2004/unai
dsbangkokpress/gar2004html/gar2004_00_en.htm
http://www.un.org.np/sites/default/files/report/tid_107/Gl
obal_Report_2004.pdf
[6] UNAIDS/WHO (2004) AIDS epidemic update.
http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/data
import/pub/report/2004/2004_epiupdate_en.pdf
[7] UNIADS (2005) AIDS epidemic update.
http://data.unaids.org/Publications/IRC-pub06/epi_update
2005_en.pdf
[8] UNAIDS (2006) REPORT on the global aids epidemic
global report chapter 2: Overview of the global AIDS
epidemic.
http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_gr_c
h02_en.pdf
[9] UNAIDS/WHO. AIDS (2006) Epidemic update.
http://data.unaids.org/pub/EpiReport/2006/2006_EpiUpda
te_en.pdf
[10] UNAIDS/WHO (2006) Epidemiological fact sheets on
HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections.
http://www.who.int/globalatlas/predefinedReports/EFS20
06/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_SD.pdf
[11] UNAIDS/WHO. AIDS (2007) Epidemic update.
http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdat
e_en.pdf
[12] Segal, U.A. and Mayadas, N.S. (2005) Assessment of
issues facing immigrant and refugee families. Child Wel-
fare, 84, 563-583.
[13] Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services
(2007) Refugee resettlement program population defini-
tions.
http://dhhs.ne.gov/children_family_services/Pages/refuge
es_definitions.aspx
[14] Jaranson, J.M., Butcher, J., Halcon, L., Johnson, D.R.,
Robertson, C., Savik, K., Spring, M. and Westermeyer, J.
(2004) Somali and Oromo refugees: Correlates of torture
and trauma history. American Journal of Public Health,
94, 591-598. doi:10.2105/AJPH.94.4.591
[15] Owens, C.W., Johnson, B. and Iman, H. (2003) Somali
bantu refugees. Notes from the Refugee Community
Building Conference, Sea Tac.
http://ethnomed.org/cultures/somali/somali_bantu.html
[16] Tompkins, M., Smith, L., Jones, K. and Swindells, S.
(2006) HIV education needs among Sudanese immigrant
and refugees in the Midwestern United States. AIDS and
Behavior, 10, 319-323. doi:10.1007/s10461-005-9060-8
[17] (2003) Nebraska department of health and human ser-
vices system. HIV/AIDS surveillance report.
http://dhhs.ne.gov/Documents/AIDSSurv06.pdf
[18] UNIADS and WHO (2005) Middle East and North Africa
fact sheet.
http://data.unaids.org/Publications/Fact-Sheets04/fs_men
a_nov05_en.pdf
[19] UNIAIDS AIDS Update (2006) Middle East and North
Africa.
http://data.unaids.org/pub/epireport/2006/2006_epiupdate
_en.pdf
[20] UNIADS and World Health Organization (WHO) (2004)
Sudan: Epidemiological fact sheets on HIV/AIDS and
sexually transmitted infections 2004 update. Fact sheet.
http://data.unaids.org/Publications/Fact-Sheets01/sudan_e
n.pdf
[21] Holt, B.Y., Brady, W., Belay, E., Toole, M., Effler, P.,
Friday, J. and Parker, K. (2003) Planning STI/HIV pre-
vention among refugees and mobile populations: Situa-
tion Assessment of Sudanese refugees. Disasters, 27, 1-
15. doi:10.1111/1467-7717.00216
[22] Kaiser, R., Kedamo, T., Lane, J., Kessia, G., Handzel, T.
et al. (2004) HIV/STI prevalence and risk factor surveys
in Yei and Rumbek, South Sudan, 2002/2003. 15th Inter-
national AIDS Conference, Bangkok, 11-16 July 2004,
Abstract T uPeC4 739.
[23] Lacey, M. (2001) Somali Bantu, trapped in Kenya, seek a

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8 97
home. The New York Times.
http://query.nytimes.com/ gst/f ullpag e.ht ml?re s=9A03E5
DB1E3CF93AA35751C1A9679C8B63
[24] UNIADS and World Health Education. Somalia (2006)
HIV epidemic and its response 2003-2005, draft report on
the UNGASS declaration of commitment. December,
summary country profile for HIV/AIDS treatment
scale-up.
http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/2006_country_pro
gress_report_somalia_en.pdf
[25] UNAIDS (2000) Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS. Migrant populations and HIV/AIDS. UN-
AIDS technical update.
http://data.unaids.org/publications/IRC-pub01/jc397-migr
antpop_en.pdf
[26] UNAIDS (2001) Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS. Edited by Margaret Duckett, Migrants’ right
to health.
http://data.unaids.org/publications/IRC-pub02/jc519-migr
antsrighttohealth_en.pdf
[27] UNIADS (2006) Country progress report 2006 Somalia
(952K) monitoring the declaration of commitment on
HIV/AIDS—2005 country progress reports.
http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2006/2006_country_pro
gress_report_somalia_en.pdf
[28] Hankins, C.A., Friedman, S.R., Zafar, T. and Strathdee,
S.A. (2002) Transmission and prevention of HIV and
sexually transmitted infections in war settings: Implica-
tions for current and future armed conflicts. AIDS, 16,
2245-2252. doi:10.1097/00002030-200211220-00003
[29] (2004) Nebraska department of health and human ser-
vices system. HIV/AIDS surveillance report.
http://nlc1.nlc.state.ne.us/epubs/H8220/B002-2004.pdf
[30] (2006) Nebraska department of health and human ser-
vices system. HIV/AIDS surveillance report.
http://dhhs.ne.gov/Documents/AIDSSurv06.pdf
[31] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005)
Trends in HIV/AIDS diagnoses-33 States, 2001-2004.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 1149-1153.
[32] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008) Per-
sons tested for HIV-United States 2006. Morbidity and
Mortality Wee kly Report, 57, 845-849.
[33] UNAIDS (2005) Uniting the world against AIDS: Women.
http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/200605-FS_SubSaha
ranAfrica_en.pdf
[34] UNAIDS Global Coalition on Women and AIDS (2005)
Empowering women, fighting aids. Economic security
for women fights AIDS. Issue 3.
http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/data
import/publications/irc-pub07/ jc1251-keepingpromise-small
_en.pdf
[35] Krishnan, S., Dunbar, M.S., Minnis, A.M., Medlin, C.A.,
Gerdts, C.E. and Padian, N.S. (2007) Poverty, gender in-
equities and women’s risk of HIV/AIDS. Scientific ap-
proaches to understanding and reducing poverty. Annals
of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1-18.
[36] Rankin, S.H., Lingren, T., Rankin, W.W. and Ngoma, J.
(2005) Donkey Work: Women, religion, and HIV/AIDS
in Malawi. Health Care for Women International, 26, 4-
16. doi:10.1080/07399330590885803
[37] UNAIDS Global Coalition on Women and AIDS (2007)
Increase women’s control over HIV prevention fight
AIDS. Newsletter Issue 4.
http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/data
im-
port/publications/irc-pub07/jc1237-gcwa-prevention-4_en
.pdf
[38] UNAIDS/WHO (2004) Women and AIDS, and extract
from December 2004 epidemic update.
http://data.unaids.org/gcwa/jc986-epiextract_en.pdf
[39] Ackermann, L. and de Klerk, G.W. (2002) Social factors
that make South African women vulnerable to HIV infec-
tion. Health Care for Women International, 23, 163-172.
doi:10.1080/073993302753429031
[40] Duffy, L. (2005) Culture and context of HIV prevention
in rural Zimbabwe: The influence of gender and inequal-
ity. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 16, 25-31.
doi:10.1177/1043659604270962
[41] Harrison, A., O’Sullivan, L.F., Hoffman, S., Dolezal, C.
and Morrell, R. (2006) Gender role and relationship
norms among young adults in South Africa: Measuring
the context of masculinity and HIV risk. Journal of Ur-
ban Health, 83, 709-722.
doi:10.1007/s11524-006-9077-y
http://www.springerlink.com/content/h074pg77g4t41726/
fulltext.html
[42] Mbirimtengerenji, N.D. (2007) Is HIV/AIDS epidemic
outcome of poverty in sub-Saharan Africa? Croatian
Medical Journal, 48, 605-617.
[43] Wang, J., et al. (2001) Level of AIDS and HIV knowl-
edge and sexual practices among sexually transmitted
disease patients in China. Sexually Transmitted Diseases,
28, 171-175.
doi:10.1097/00007435-200103000-00009
[44] Lazarus, J.V., Himedan, HM., ØStergaard, LR and Lil-
jestrand, J. (2006) HIV/AIDS knowledge and condom use
among Somali and Sudanese immigrants in Denmark.
Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 34, 92-99.
doi:10.1080/14034940510032211
[45] Foley, E.E. (2005) HIV/AIDS and African American
immigrant women in Philadelphia: Structural and cultural
barriers to care. AIDS Care, 17, 1030-1043.
doi:10.1080/09540120500100890
[46] Organista, P.B., Organista, K.C. and Solof, P.R. (1998)
Exploring AIDS related knowledge, attitudes, and behav-
iors of female Mexican migrant workers. Health and So-
cial Wo rk, 23, 96-103. doi:10.1093/hsw/23.2.96
[47] Laverentz, M.L., Cox, C.C. and Jordan, M. (1991) The
Nuer education program: Breaking down cultural barriers.
Health Care for Women International, 20, 1-6.
[48] Worth H., Denholm N. and Bannister J. (2003) HIV/
AIDS and the African refugee education program in New
Zealand. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 346-356.
doi:10.1521/aeap.15.5.346.23819
[49] Ebrahim, S.E., Anderson, J.E., Weidle, P. and Purcell,
D.W. (2004) Race/ethnic disparities in HIV testing and

S. Feresu, L. Smith / Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 3 (2013) 84-9 8
98
knowledge about treatment for HIV/AIDS: United States,
2001. AIDS Patient Care and STD’s, 18, 27-33.
[50] Lawrence, J and Kearns, R. (2005) Exploring the fit be-
tween people and providers: Refugee health needs and
health care services in Mt. Roskill, Auckland, New Zea-
land. Health and Social Care in the Community, 13, 451-
461. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2524.2005.00572.x
[51] Elfadil Wafaa (2005) WFP Sudan gender national office.
Sudan gender profile. Available at: Foley, E.E. HIV/AIDS
and African American immigrant women in Philadelphia:
Structural and cultural barriers to care. AIDS Care, 17,
1030-1043. doi:10.1080/09540120500100890
[52] Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services
(2007) Refugee resettlement program funding.
http://dhhs.ne.gov/children_family_services/Pages/refuge
es_funding.aspx
[53] Kalichman, S.C., Simbayi, L.C., Kagee, A., Toefy, Y.,
Jooste, S., Cain, D. and Cherry, C. (2006) Associations of
poverty, substance use and HIV transmission risk behav-
iors in three South African communities. Social Science
and Medicine, 62, 1641-1649.
doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.08.021
[54] Mabunda, G. (2004) HIV knowledge and practices among
rural South Africans. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 36,
300-304. d oi:10.1111/j.1547-5069.2004.04055.x
[55] Wagner, D., Coordinated by The United Nations Educa-
tional Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Literacy and adu lt e duc ation.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001233/123333e.
pdf
[56] Shedlin M.G., Decena C.U. and Olivier-Velez D. (2005)
Initial acculturation and HIV risk among new Hispanic
immigrants. Journal of the National Medical Association,
97, 32S-37S.
[57] Library of Congress (2004) Federal research division
country profile: Sudan.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Sudan.pdf
[58] Hargreaves, J.R. and Glynn, J.R. (2002) Educational at-
tainment and HIV 1 infection in developing countries: A
systematic review. Tropical Medicine and International
Health, 7, 499-498.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2002.00889.x
[59] Hargreaves, J.R., Bonell, C.P., Boler, T., Boccia, D., Bird-
thistle, I., Fletcher, A., et al. (2008) Systematic review
exploring time trends in the association between educa-
tional attainment and risk of HIV infection in sub- Saha-
ran Africa. AIDS, 22, 403-414.
[60] UNAIDS (2000) The relationship between sexual behav-
iour and level of education in developing countries (UN-
AIDS—Best practice digest, 3 Pages.
http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl;jsessionid=2
0143F6FE9D4BE45751F5675DD988BEA?a=dandd=HA
SH010746d58add0714a1d98354andc=unaidsandsib=and
ed=1andp.s=ClassifierBrowseandp.sa=andp.a=bandp.c=u
naids
[61] Michelo, C., Sandøy, I.F., and Fylkesnes, K. (2006) Marked
HIV prevalence declines in higher educated young people:
Evidence from population-based surveys (1995-2003) in
Zambia. AIDS, 20, 1031-1038.
doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000222076.91114.95
[62] Mmbaga, E.J., Leyna, G.H., Mnyika, S.K., Hussain, A.
and Klepp, K. (2007) Education attainment and the risk
of HIV-1 Infections in Rural Kilimanjaro Region of Tan-
zania, 1991-2005: A reversed association. Sexually Trans-
mitted Diseases, 34, 1-7.
[63] Bloom, S.S., Banda, C., Songolo, G., Mulendema, S.,
Cunningham, A. and Boerma, J.T. (2000) Looking for
change in response to the AIDS epidemic: Trends in
AIDS knowledge and sexual behavior in Zambia, 1990
through 1998. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndromesd, 25, 77-85.
doi:10.1097/00126334-200009010-00011
[64] Yazdi, C.A., et al. (2006) Knowledge, attitudes and
sources of information regarding HIV/AIDS in Iranian
adolescents. AIDS Care, 18, 1004-1010.
doi:10.1080/09540120500526284
[65] Hesketh, T., Duo, L. and Tomkins, A.M. (2005) Attitudes
to HIV and HIV testing in high prevalence areas of China:
Informing the introduction of voluntary counseling and
testing procedures. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 81,
108-112. doi:10.1136/sti.2004.009704
[66] Lugalla, J., Emmelin, M., Mutembei, A., Sima, M., Kwe-
sigabo, G., Killewo, J. and Dahlgren, L. (2004) Social,
cultural and sexual behavioral determinants of observed
decline in HIV infection trends: Lessons from the Kagera
region, Tanzania. Social Science and Medicine, 59, 185-
198. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.10.033
[67] Cleland, J. and Ali, M.M. (2006) Sexual abstinence, con-
traception, and condom use by young African women: A
secondary analysis of survey data. Lancet, 368, 1788-
1783. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69738-9
[68] Gausset, Q. (2001) AIDS and Cultural practices in Africa:
The case of the Tonga (Zambia). Social Science and
Medicine, 52, 509-518.
doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00156-8