The role of partners in shaping the body image and body change strategies of adult men ——Partners and male body image

doi:10.4236/health.2010.29148

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Vol.2, No.9, 1002-1009 (2010) Health

doi:10.4236/health.2010.29148

The role of partners in shaping the body image and body

change strategies of adult men

——Partners and male body image

Marita P. McCabe*, Shauna McGreevy

School of Psychology, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia; *Corresponding Author: marita.mccabe@deakin.edu.au

Received 30 March 2010; revised 29 April 2010; accepted 5 May 2010.

ABSTRACT

The current study examined the relationship

between perceived messages about the bodies

of adult men from their sexual partners and the

actual body image of these men. Interviews

were conducted among 38 middle-aged men.

Feedback from partners was generally compli-

mentary, and the men were generally positive

about their body image. Partners were seen to

be more focused on a healthy body rather than a

physically attractive body. The implications of

these findings for better understanding the so-

cial influence on adult men to obtain a healthy

body weight are discussed.

Keywords: Men; Body Image; Partners; Qualitative

1. INTRODUCTION

A growing body of literature has demonstrated that the

ideal body form for males is slim and muscular [1], and

that males receive messages from a range of sources to

achieve this ideal [2-4]. Most of this past research has

been conducted with adolescent boys, and has demon-

strated that adolescent boys are particularly focused on

obtaining a lean muscular body [5]. Messages to achieve

this body shape come from parents, peers and the media

[6]. In a recent review of the nature of the body image of

males, and the factors that contribute to males’ body

image, Gray and Ginsberg [7] found a strong preference

for a muscular body among both Western and non-

Western males.

There have been limited studies on the sociocultural

influences on the body image of adult men. The limited

research that is available suggests that they are aware of

the sociocultural body ideal for men, and they have

similar body image concerns to those of adolescent boys

[1]. Grogan and Richards [8] found that boys and men in

all age groups drew a relationship between muscularity

and masculinity. Rather than focusing on appearance in

its own right, they focused more on how their bodies

looked in relation to function, fitness and health. Grogan

[8] expanded this view further in her review of studies of

men’s body image and concluded that a large aspect of

male body image relates to functionality, rather than

appearance.

The above research has not examined if the nature of

the messages that men receive about their body, in terms

of weight and muscularity, are different according to

their weight. Certainly, Luciano [10] suggested that body

weight would appear to influence the level of body dis-

satisfaction experienced by men. Davison and McCabe

[1] found that poor body image was related to problems

in social and sexual functioning among middle-aged

men, and to depression and anxiety among older men.

These results suggest that, at least for middle aged men,

their sexual partner may play some role in shaping their

body image. The current study was designed to explore

the nature of the messages from the partner about the

man’s body, and how these messages varied according to

the man’s body size.

Previous research has suggested that sexual partners

may provide a significant source of appearance-related

information to men [11]. Feedback from significant oth-

ers may contribute to men’s perceptions of body image,

through criticism or compliments, and partners may pro-

vide a point of reference through which men derive their

level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their bodies

[11]. Sheets and Ajmere [12] also found that male and

female romantic partners reported telling each other to

lose or gain weight. Women were more likely to tell their

male dating partners to gain weight, whereas men would

typically tell their female partners to either gain or lose

weight.

Married men may be more motivated by their own need

to possess the ideal male physique than by their wives’

opinion of their bodies [13]. A comparison between mar-

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ried and single couples found that married couples were

far less concerned that their husband or wife possessed

the ideal body physique than did single couples [13].

Although the above studies examined the nature of

messages from partners, very few studies have investi-

gated the relationship between men’s body image and

how messages from sexual partners are associated with

men’s perception of their bodies and how they subse-

quently try to change their body shape and weight. Studies

have shown that men, like women, place a great deal of

importance on their appearance [14,15], and may report

dissatisfaction with their bodies if they perceive that

their current image does not live up to the socially-acce-

pted ideal body for men [16,17]. The use of maladaptive

body-change strategies by men, such as steroids and ex-

cessive exercise, has increased in recent years, as men

attempt to attain and maintain the V-shaped male physique

[9,14]. It is therefore important to obtain a better under-

standing of the types of messages that men receive about

their bodies, and how these messages are interpreted.

The aim of the current study was to explore the rela-

tionship between perceived messages from sexual part-

ners and body image in men. Of particular interest was

the nature of the messages that men receive about their

bodies from their sexual partners, and how these mes-

sages influenced men to change their weight and shape.

A qualitative methodology was adopted to obtain a de-

tailed understanding of the nature of the messages that

men reported they received from their partners.

2. METHODS

2.1. Participants

Of the 38 men who participated in this study, 22 were

aged 51 to 60 years and 16 were aged between 41 and 49

years. A requirement of the study was that men were

currently engaged in a heterosexual relationship. Nine of

these men were in a steady relationship, 14 were married

for the first time, six were remarried, eight were either

divorced or separated, and one was widowed. Twenty

two of the participants were employed in a profes-

sional/managerial capacity, three worked in education,

four were employed in the health sector, five were re-

tired, and two were employed in sales. Twenty five of

the participants listed their country of birth as the United

States of America, and 13 were born in Australia. Al-

though it was not possible to formally analyze the dif-

ference between the responses of men from the United

States and Australia, the manner in which the themes

clustered for the two groups did not demonstrate any

apparent difference in the responses of men from the two

countries.

2.2. Materials

The open-ended interviews consisted of eight questions

relating to perceived messages about their body received

from participants’ sexual partners, the impact of these

messages on their body image, as well as questions re-

lating to men’s perceptions of the sociocultural pressures

on males to conform to idealized standards of the male

physique. The questions were developed from the litera-

ture and were designed to examine the perceived influ-

ence of partners on a man’s body image and his body

change strategies. The questions are listed in the Results

section. Men were encouraged to expand on their an-

swers and provide additional information to support their

initial response.

2.3. Procedure

Approval to complete the study was obtained from the

University Human Ethics Committee. Participants were

recruited by placing information about the study on a

range of web sites in United States of America and Aus-

tralia. Fifty websites were located in each of these two

countries, information about the study was provided, and

men were asked to complete an anonymous question-

naire about the types of messages they perceived their

partner’s communicated to them about the body. It was a

requirement for the study that the men were between 40

and 60 years of age, and were currently engaged in a

relationship. Men were asked to answer the open-ended

questions on their body image on line. Participants were

advised that participation was voluntary and that they

would be able to withdraw from the study at any time.

There was no reimbursement for participation in the

study. Men were asked to provide their height and

weight so that their Body Mass Index (BMI) could be

calculated. Men also provided information on their age,

marital status, occupation, and country of birth.

3. RESULTS

Given the importance of BMI on body dissatisfaction,

respondents were organized into three BMI groups: BMI

less than 25 (normal weight), BMI 25 to 29.99 (over-

weight), and BMI 30 + (obese). There were eight par-

ticipants in the normal weight group, 16 participants in

the overweight group, and 14 participants in the obese

group. For each of the eight questions, the results were

organized into the themes that emerged for respondents

from each of the three BMI groups. Responses were read

by the two authors, and they independently determined

the themes that emerged from each question. The themes

from each of the questions were considered separately. A

grounded theory approach [18] was used to guide the

M. P. McCabe et al. / HEALTH 2 (2010) 1002-1009

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interpretation of the data due to the limited previous re-

search on partner influence on male body image. Within

this approach pre-coded categories are not used. It is the

categories that emerge from the narratives that are ex-

plored and subsequently coded. The authors then met to

discuss the concordance or otherwise of the themes that

they determined had emerged from the data. There was a

high level of concordance in the nature of these themes,

since the questions largely shaped the nature of the

themes that emerged from the data. Discussion between

the two authors and some re-reading of the transcripts

resulted in an agreement on the themes that are reported

in this paper. The main themes for each of the questions

are included in Table 1.

Question 1: Do you receive any feedback from your

partner regarding the size and shape of your body?

Normal weight Group

The perceived feedback from partners (both female

and male) was mostly positive for the men in this group,

with some men perceiving they received complimentary

feedback from partners about their bodies, particularly

regarding certain aspects of their bodies such as their

abdominal muscles, their buttocks, and their overall

muscle tone.

I do receive feedback from my partner. Usually it is

positive as I am in good shape and I exercise regularly.

(PB, Age Range: 41-50, Married)

However, even men who were of normal body weight

and who perceived positive feedback from their partners

were concerned if they perceived that they did not live

up to the muscular male body ideal.

She says that she likes my body and the way I look.

She makes jokes sometimes, and that makes it hard.

She’ll say that she likes this other guy’s body, because it

is so muscular and he’s so strong. When she says this, I

feel bad that I’m not as muscular and strong. (PM, Age

Range: 41-50, Steady Relationship)

Overweight Group

Most of the men’s partners in this group were per-

ceived complimentary about their partners’ bodies, or

were encouraging of their partners’ strategies to get back

into shape (e.g., dieting). The majority of the participants

in this group indicated that they were happy with their

bodies.

Yes—they think I’m hot. The things I might be most

self-conscious about are what turn them on the most (my

beer belly and being very hairy)! (MH, Age Range:

51-60, Single)

My wife generally allows me to take care of what’s

mine with minimal interference (and appreciates when I

do the same). Even so, she’s commented that she thinks

I’m very handsome, likes that I’m tall, has seemed satis-

fied with my weight at all points in our relationship. (CC:

Age Range: 51-60, Married)

Obese Group

Comments from partners were perceived to be en-

couraging of good health rather than being directed at

achieving the muscular male ideal. Participants reported

that even when body change strategies were warranted,

partners were perceived to be encouraging of their ef-

forts rather than disparaging.

Yes, my wife of 40 years tells me I’m in great shape.

Table 1. Main themes identified by men in different weight categories.

Theme Normal weight n = 8 Overweight n = 16 Obese n = 14

Positive feedback 6 14 10

Concern about muscular ideal 2 - 4

Negative feedback - - 2

Encouragement to lose weight 4 2 8

Encouragement to build muscles 3 6 5

Encouragement to be healthy 5 11 10

Teasing 1 3 7

Encouragement to change shape of body 2 4 4

More pressure on men now compared to previously 7 14 13

Pressure coming from media 7 14 13

Pressure coming from friends 1 4 4

Positive body image 7 13 10

Negative body image 1 3 4

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When I start to gain a bit too much, she mentions it, but

in a way that she tries to make sound off-hand. (HM, Age

Range: 51-60, Married)

My partner and I often talk about our diet and what

we should eat. When I do lose weight my partner is full

of praise for me and we both try to stop me from putting

on the weight again. We normally attend a gym 3 times

per week. (CJ, Age Range: 41-50, Steady Relationship)

However, two men in this category reported perceiv-

ing negative feedback about their bodies from their

partners, and one participant indicated that his partner

did not comment on his body.

I am overweight and she tells me so. (PB, Age Range:

41-50, Remarried)

Question 2: Does your partner encourage you to lose

or gain weight?

Normal weight Group

Four participants in the normal weight category indi-

cated that they did not perceive encouragement from

their partners to lose weight. Partners of the men in this

category were generally perceived to be supportive of

the way they looked.

My partner does not complain about my weight and

therefore does not encourage me to either gain or lose

weight. (PB, Age Range: 41-50 ; Married)

Overweight Group

Men in the overweight category reported either per-

ceiving no comments from partners to lose or gain

weight, or positive encouragement to maintain a healthy

lifestyle, or to lose weight. Men reported that their part-

ners did not apply pressure for them to lose weight, but

instead were seen to encourage them to maintain a

healthy concern about their body weight that was more

related to health and fitness than to the way they looked.

She is encouraging if I say that I plan to stop eating

sugar and some carbs (doughnuts for instance), but she

does not pressure me if I am not already interested. (LC:

Age Range: 51-60, Remarried)

Obese Group

Men in the obese weight category perceived more en-

couragement to lose weight than the men in the lower

weight categories. This encouragement was focused on

health concerns rather than partners wanting their men to

achieve the ideal male body.

She’s always trying to get me to eat healthier, some-

times with success. I think her main motivation, however,

is health, not appearance. (HM, Age Range: 51-60, Steady

Relationship)

Question 3: Does your partner encourage you to be-

come more muscular?

For most men in all three weight categories, the in-

centive to build muscle seemed to come mostly from

themselves rather than from their partners. Similar to the

encouragement from partners to lose or gain weight,

encouragement or perceived encouragement from part-

ners to gain muscle seemed to have more to do with the

maintenance of health, than the pursuit of body image

ideals.

Normal weight Group

No, never. I have always been drawn to looking more

muscular on my own, so no one has ever been inclined to

tell me this. (SJ, Age Range: 41-50, Married)

Overweight Group

No. When I point out various male body types in the

media (more muscular and/or defined than I am) and ask

if I should attempt to attain that shape, I am usually told

I am fine as I am currently, but if I want to change I

should do what makes me happy. (MA, Age Range:

41-50, Married)

Obese Group

She likes that I have good muscle definition, but has

never encouraged me to lift weights or do anything that

has the sole purpose of making me more muscular. She

says that really muscular men look gross. (HM, Age

Range: 51-60, Married)

Question 4: Does your partner tease you about the

size and shape of your body? Please give details.

The majority of men, in all three weight categories,

reported no teasing from partners regarding the size and

shape of their bodies. Overall, partners were perceived to

be supportive of their men in terms of body image. More

men in the obese group perceived they were teased than

in the other two weight groups.

Normal weight Group

My partner’s comments about my body are positive,

e.g., that I have strong legs etc. She even boasts to her

family that while most men my age are becoming soft,

that I am in the best shape ever. (PB, Age Range: 41-50,

Married)

Overweight Group

Sometimes she will remind me that I was in much bet-

ter shape when we were younger, but then she was too.

So she does not give me a hard time. (LC, Age Range:

51-60, Remarried)

Obese Group

Gentle teasing, but we both are in good shape consid-

ering our age. We both are fairly attractive physically,

according to our friends. (E, Age Range: 51-60, Remar-

ried)

Question 5: In what ways does feedback from your

partner influence you to change the size or shape of your

body? (i.e., increasing exercise, eating less, eating more,

taking supplements, using steroids, etc.).

Men generally reported perceiving very little feedback

from their partners to change the size or shape of their

bodies, and when there was feedback it was mostly posi-

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tive. A common theme among the three BMI groups was

self-motivation to get into/stay in shape, rather than

wanting to change their shape for someone else. How-

ever, a number of men reported being influenced by their

perceptions of their partners’ opinion of their bodies,

even if their partner’s opinion was not voiced directly.

None of the men, in any of the three BMI groups, re-

ported using steroids to change their body shape.

Normal weight Group

Since she says nothing either complimentary or nega-

tive, I do what I think I need to do for good health. I do it

for myself and to look good among other men. (HL, Age

Range: 51-60, Married)

Overweight Group

It does not influence me, although I think that it is

important for a man to feel that he is attractive to/want-

ed by women. I am happy to receive a positive compli-

ment and my self-esteem gets a boost. (SB, Age Range:

41-50, Steady Relationship)

Obese Group

I can tell when she’s checking me out physically. When

she compliments my appearance, that’s a big factor in-

fluencing me to keep working at it. (HM, Age Range:

51-60, Married)

Question 6: Do you think there is more or less pres-

sure on men these days to be slimmer and more muscu-

lar than ever before?

There was a general consensus from the men in all

three BMI groups that there is more pressure on men

today to conform to a particular body type, i.e., to be

slimmer and more muscular or toned. Men generally

thought this pressure came from the media: billboards,

television, and movies. Some men acknowledged that

this pressure had a negative effect on their own body

image, in that they felt they had to try to live up to the

unrealistic images that they saw displayed in the media.

Others indicated that the pressure ‘to be perfect’ had the

effect of portraying those who do not fit the ‘profile’ as

less than competent or stupid. Some of the men even

acknowledged that the pressure on men to conform to a

body ideal is similar to the amount of pressure on

women to conform to a female body ideal.

Normal weight Group

More! (pressure). I noticed today the models that

clothing companies use to advertise underwear – abso-

lutely PERFECT in every way! So even though I know

it’s bullshit, there is still a part of me that compares what

I see in the mirror with what I see in the media and

thinks that I have to live up to it. (NB, Age Range: 41-50 ,

Divorced/Separated)

Overweight group

I feel that due to reality TV shows like Survivor and

The Biggest Loser there is a standard of male muscular-

ity and fitness to be achieved, and that those with less,

i.e., the more overweight and less fit, or less ability to hit

that standard, are viewed as liabilities to be eliminated.

(MA, Age Range: 41-50, Married)

Obese Group

Yes. I think there is more pressure on men, particu-

larly younger men, from movies, TV, and magazines. I

know that I feel guilty about being a few kilos over-

weight and that my dad or my uncles would never have

felt that way at all. Overweight people are often por-

trayed as stupid or incompetent or comic. You can’t

avoid those enormous outdoor billboards with bulging

pecs and bulging briefs. (RM, Age Range: 51-60, Mar-

ried)

Question 7: Where is this pressure coming from? (i.e.,

Men’s magazines, Television, Movies, friends, other in-

fluences, etc.)

Most men saw the added pressure on today’s males as

coming from the media, television, movies, and bill-

boards. Some men also indicated that pressure has seen

to come from both same and opposite sex friends. A few

participants thought that there was pressure exerted on

men to be healthier due to media health messages to re-

duce obesity. Others felt that indirect pressure was ex-

erted on men via images of perfect male bodies dis-

played in women’s magazines.

Normal weight Group

All of the above (men’s magazines, television, movies,

friends, other influences): part of a total cultural/gene-

rational shift. In my opinion, Western culture has reach-

ed something of a hiatus, and values espoused are rep-

resentative of an increasing shallowness in our culture.

(BP, Age Range: 41-50, Steady Relationship)

Overweight Group

I think the pressure comes mainly from friends, espe-

cially the opposite sex. In previous generations, women

were more economically dependent on men, and men

could attract the attention of women, and status among

men, by being financially successful, even if he wasn’t

especially fit. Now however, women don’t need men as

much for financial reasons, and so men are starting to

compete for attention and status in other ways, such as

physical fitness. (LM, Age Range: 41-50, Married)

Obese Group

I would say that the companies who use advertising

use every avenue they can to put their products in front

of men. Everywhere you look there are ads to improve

the styles. All the models are young, fit, and good-looking.

My observations suggest that companies are wasting

their money. Health and fitness, I am afraid, is not win-

ning this contest. (CJ, Age Range: 41-50, Steady Rela-

tionship)

Question 8: How do you think the pressure on men to

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be slimmer and/or more muscular makes you feel about

your body?

Answers to this question were mixed. Societal pres-

sure to conform to an ideal body type left a majority of

these men feeling quite negative about their bodies,

while a minority of others reported positive conse-

quences. In general, men in the normal weight group felt

more positive about their bodies than men in the heavier

BMI groups, however, this was not always the case.

Some lighter men reported body dissatisfaction, and

some heavier men reported being satisfied with their

bodies. In some cases, the perceived pressure on men to

conform to slimmer/more muscular body ideals had

quite a profound, negative effect on men’s perceptions of

themselves and their bodies.

Normal weight Group

I’m aware that I’m relatively ‘skinny’ (6 feet and about

80 kilos) but I feel quite good about my body. (LP, Age

Range: 51-60, Divorced/Separated)

I sometimes feel ‘lazy’ that I’m not at the gym 3 days a

week working to get rid of that extra 4 or 5 pounds. My

body is not the ‘enemy’ but media messages keep re-

minding me that I’m not doing everything possible to be

part of that slim, active, fit demographic. (WB, Age

Range: 41-50, Divorced/Separated)

Overweight Group

I’m more self-conscious that I do not have the ‘per-

fect’ male body and women do not see me as attractive,

and that makes me feel less needed. It is also a factor in

my inability to maintain a relationship with a women.

(DN, Age Range: 41-50, Steady Relationship)

It makes me feel like I should be in better shape, and

have a washboard stomach, and bigger muscles. (RB,

Age Range: 51-60, Married)

Obese Group

I feel that pressure. I feel it in the dating scene. How-

ever, for me it is more of a health issue, as I have had a

triple by-pass and am in need of losing weight to protect

and care for my heart. (BE, Age Range: 51-60, Di-

vorced/Separated )

Just fine. I have never been interested in fads or

trends and I have never been fashionable, and being me

is about all I have time for. (MJ, Age Range: 51-60,

Steady Relationship)

4. DISCUSSION

All three BMI groups of men indicated that they per-

ceived mostly positive feedback about their size and

shape from their partners regardless of their body weight.

There were no obvious differences in the perception of

partner comments in terms of marital status. Men in the

normal weight group reported receiving complimentary

comments about particular aspects of their bodies (i.e.,

abdominal muscles, buttocks, muscle tone). Men in the

overweight category perceived similar complimentary

comments, or partners who were encouraging of men’s

strategies to get into shape (e.g., dieting). Men in the

overweight group were also generally happy with their

bodies. Positive and complimentary comments from

partners were similarly reported by the men in the obese

weight category, with partners perceived to be encour-

aging good health rather than pushing men to attempt to

achieve the ideal male body. These results are consistent

with Ogden and Taylor’s [11] comments that sexual

partners may provide a significant source of appearance-

related information to men, and that this feedback is

likely to contribute to men’s perceptions of their body

image through criticism or compliments,

Men in the normal weight group reported that their

partners were generally supportive of the way they

looked. The men in this group indicated that they did not

receive pressure from their partners to lose weight, but

instead were encouraged by their partners to maintain a

healthy concern about their body weight that was more

related to health and fitness than achieving the idealized

male physique. Men in the obese group generally per-

ceived more encouragement from partners to lose weight

than men in the lower weight groups. However, these

men also reported that the focus of comments to lose

weight from partners was for concerns about health

rather than wanting their men to work towards an unob-

tainable body shape.

These results are inconsistent with previous research

by Grogan [9] who found that men were more focused

on health than appearances. Further, Sheets and Ajmere

[12], who found that dating partners reported telling

each other to lose or gain weight: Women were more

likely to encourage their male partners to gain weight,

while men were more likely to tell their female partners

to lose weight. Perhaps the discrepancy between the re-

sults from the present study and past research can be

explained by age. The majority of men in the present

study were aged over 50 years of age and were likely to

be in longer-term, more stable relationships than those in

Sheets and Ajmere’s [12] study, who were drawn from a

college population. Age and length of the relationship

may be associated with less concern over appearance

and more concern with health and well being. Tom et al.

[13] found that having a long-lasting relationship re-

duced the importance of body image dissatisfaction as

well as the impact of unrealistic body image ideals.

Men in all three weight categories reported that the

incentive to build muscle came mostly from themselves

rather than from their partners. Perceived encouragement

from partners seemed to be positive and centered around

M. P. McCabe et al. / HEALTH 2 (2010) 1002-1009

1008

the maintenance of good health rather than the pursuit of

a muscular body. The majority of men across the three

weight categories reported no teasing from partners about

their size or shape. Some men, however, reported that

they experienced teasing from partners, ranging from

gentle teasing comments to more hurtful remarks. Men

in the obese weight category reported more teasing

comments than men in the other two weight categories.

Further research in this area is needed in order to gain a

clearer understanding of the extent of partner teasing on

body image and the ways is which this may influence

men to use body-change strategies to change their shape.

The majority of men in this study, across all three

BMI groups, agreed that men are under more pressure

now to conform to a particular body type, than in the

past. Consistent with a previous review of research ex-

amining body image across the lifespan [5], most men

thought that this pressure came from the media, adver-

tising, billboards, television, magazines, and movies, but

not so much from friends or their partner. However, oth-

ers implicated same and opposite sex friends as convey-

ors of social attitudes about male body image. Consistent

with findings by Grogan [9], most men acknowledged

that this pressure had a negative effect on their own body

image, in that they felt that they were expected to live up

to unrealistic images that are portrayed in the media.

These results are consistent with findings with women

that highlight the important role played by the media in

shaping their body image [9].

Overall, the perceived influence of sexual partners on

male body image in this study was positive. Most part-

ners were perceived to be supportive of men’s actual

body shape and/or weight and did not actively encourage

the pursuit of the idealized, slim and muscular male

physique. If partners were perceived to encourage body

change, the reasons were generally motivated by con-

cerns for health, rather than appearance, and these mes-

sages were perceived to be conveyed through gentle en-

couragement rather than through teasing. Very few men

reported teasing comments regarding their bodies from

partners. Men who did pursue a more muscular or toned

body did so as a result of their own desire to be more

toned or muscular, rather then being actively persuaded

to conform to the idealized male physique by their part-

ners. The men in this study almost unanimously agreed

that men are generally under a great deal of pressure to

conform to the V-shape, muscular male body. However,

most men also indicated a positive body image. This is

in contrast to research with women that has demon-

strated a high level of body dissatisfaction [9].

The results of this study demonstrate the association

between perceived messages received by adult men from

partners and other sociocultural influences on their body

image. The findings indicate that men generally feel

quite positive about their bodies, and that strategies to

change their bodies are primarily motivated by health

related concerns.

This finding has important implications for interven-

tions to address body image concerns among men. Given

that men have such a strong focus on health related con-

cerns, and they perceive their partners also to be focused

on their health, interventions need to focus on changing

men’s bodies to be more healthy rather than more attrac-

tive. This approach is quite different from women, who

are more focused on the appearance, rather than the

function of their body. It is important to replicate this

study with a larger sample of adult men, across a broader

range of cultural groups, and to determine if these find-

ings also apply for homosexual men. Information on the

ethnic group of the respondents in the current study, or if

they lived in the urban or rural locations was also not

provided. It is possible that responses may have varied

for men from these different groups. In the current study,

men ticked an age category rather than reporting their

actual age. Future research should obtain the actual age

of participants. The sample in the current study was re-

stricted to men who had access to the internet, and so

was not representative of many adult men. Future studies

also need to determine the level of muscularity of men,

since high BMI may be reflective of high levels of mus-

cularity and not obesity in some men. It is not possible to

generalize these findings to adult men more broadly, and

so it is important to investigate the role of partners on

men’s body image with a larger, more representative

group of men.

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