Advances in Physical Education
2012. Vol.2, No.4, 163-168
Published Online November 2012 in SciRes (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ape) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ape.2012.24028
The Choices Made by Adolescents in High School Physical
Education Classes: Effects of Grade, Age, and Gender on the
Type of Activity
Antonio Sabino da Silva Filho, Go Tani, Walter Roberto Correia, Umberto Cesar Corrêa
Escola de Educação Física e Esporte, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Received June 13th, 2012; revised July 15th, 2012; accepted July 30th, 2012
The comprehension of the adolescent student’s choices might help teachers to select content and to de-
velop strategies, since they show what in fact motivates the adolescent and how. This study investigated
the choices made by adolescents in different high school physical education classes in relation to grade,
age, and gender. The participants included 271 high school students enrolled in 10th, 11th, and 12th grade
mixed classes (boys and girls). The design involved three programs in which a type of activity was de-
veloped: walking, running, and futsal. Each program comprised five classes in relation to social, competi-
tion, game-like, and fitness themes, from which the students chose. The dependent variable was the theme
chosen, and trend analyses and multiple comparisons were performed. The results revealed that girls
chose more walking activities with a social theme, and boys’ choices were related to competition and
game-like themes. The fitness theme was the least popular for both girls and boys. Activities for girls that
include a social focus might have a greater appeal, while competition and game-like activities would
likely have greater acceptance among male students. No tendency related to the grades and ages progres-
sions was observed.
Keywords: Adolescent; Choice; Physical Education; Motivation; High School; Type of Activity
Introduction
In the past few decades, researchers have increasingly recog-
nized the importance of understanding the relationship between
adolescence and physical activity. On the one hand, for exam-
ple, adolescence has been considered a critical period of deve-
lopment in which individuals can begin to adopt certain health-
related behaviors such as the regular practice of physical activi-
ty (Aaron, Storti, Robertson, Kriska, & Laporte, 2002; Lubans,
Morgan, & McCormack, 2011; Naul, Nupponen, Rychtecky, &
Vuolle, 2002; Tammelin, Laitinen, & Nayha, 2004). Yet, on the
other, studies have shown that the number of adolescents with
health problems related to sedentary behavior or physical inac-
tivity (i.e., obesity and cardiovascular diseases) has increased
significantly (Alpert & Wilmore, 1994; Bar-Or, 2003; Bar-Or
& Malina, 1995; Irwin Jr. & Millstein, 1986; Kohl & Hobbs,
1998; Sallis & Patrick, 1994). In fact, it has been consistently
demonstrated that the highest rate of drop out in physical activ-
ity programs occurs between the ages of 12 and 18 years (Cas-
persen, Pereira, & Curran, 2000; Prusak & Darst, 2002; Telama
& Yang, 2000).
The promotion of physical activity in the adolescence, in-
cluding in the school physical education programs, has also
been a major focus of researchers (CDC, 1997; Cale, 2000;
Fleming et al., 1998; Hultsman, 1999; Lawson, 1998; Mckenzie,
1999; Nahas, Barros, & Oliveira, 2005; Sallis & Patrick, 1994;
Ward, Everhart, Dunaway, Fisher, & Coates, 1998; Welk,
1999). The role and potential of school-based physical educa-
tion programs in promoting and stimulating students to acquire
behaviors and knowledge related to adopting active life styles
(Nahas, Oliveira, & Barros, 2005; Rink, 2009) has justified this
research emphasis.
The main locus of research concerns has been the adoles-
cent’s motivation to participate in physical activities, and the
choices he or she makes during physical education classes
(Couturier, Chepko, & Coughin, 2005; Epstein, 1988, 1989;
Fleming, Mitchell, Gorecki, & Coleman, 1999; Garn, Cothran,
& Jenkins, 2011; Ishee, 2004; Johnson, 2008; Kovar, Kathy,
Mehrhof, & Napper-Owen, 2001; Pagnano & Griffin, 2001;
Prusak & Darst, 2002; Prusak et al., 2004; Ty-Ann & Oslin,
2003).
It has been hypothesized that giving opportunities to adoles-
cents to make choices during physical education classes will
increase his/her intrinsic motivation, and, consequently, in-
volvement, enjoyment, and participation (Kovar, Kathy, Me-
hrhof, & Napper-Owen, 2001; Lonsdale, Sabiston, Raedeke, Ha,
& Sum, 2009). It is thought that decision-making opportunities
contribute to student’s sense of autonomy, independence, and
freedom (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1987) which are important de-
velopmental characteristics of the adolescent (Bycura & Darst,
2001; Corrêa & Silva Filho, 2008).
For example, Prusak and colleagues (Prusak & Darst, 2002;
Prusak et al., 2004; Ward et al., 2008) investigated the choices
of adolescent girls in 7th and 8th grade physical education
classes. Specifically, Prusak and Darst (2002) examined the
choices of adolescent girls who were offered an opportunity to
choose between different walking activities. Walking was cho-
sen because it is less likely to be associated with pre-existing
attitudes about physical education, does not depend on skill
level, offers a greater degree of experimental control, and is in

A. S. DA S. FILHO ET AL.
line with US recommendations of participation in physical ac-
tivity in adulthood and old age. In this study, girls had to
choose among walking activities with social, exercise/fitness,
game-like, or competition themes. The results showed that so-
cial walking activities, in which the girls could interact with the
colleagues, were considered the most attractive ones. Prusak’s
later studies investigated the effect of choice on motivation
(Prusak et al., 2004), and on self-determination and physical
activity levels (Ward et al., 2008). They revealed that the girls
who had freedom of choice were more intrinsically motivated
than those without opportunities of choice, but no effects were
observed in the level of physical activity.
In another study (Corrêa & Silva Filho, 2008), the adoles-
cents’ choices were investigated with both boys and girls in
mixed physical education classes. It was observed that adoles-
cents, even in mixed classes, chose walking activities with so-
cial emphases. The girls chose social walking more than boys,
who more often chose walking activities with competition
themes. The exercise/fitness walking theme was the least cho-
sen.
In sum, previous researches have suggested that giving op-
portunities to adolescents to make choices during physical edu-
cation classes will increase his/her intrinsic motivation, and,
consequently, involvement, enjoyment, and participation. It has
been hypothesized that decision-making opportunities contri-
bute to student’s sense of autonomy, independence, and free-
dom, which are important developmental characteristics of the
adolescent. These findings have implications not only in pro-
viding a better understanding of the adolescent student’s moti-
vations, but also in helping teachers to select content and to
develop strategies, since they show what in fact motivates the
adolescent and how.
In the present study, we extended the pre-existing knowledge
by investigating the choices made by adolescent students of
both genders in relation to the following educational level (high
school). In previous studies (Corrêa & Silva Filho, 2008; Pru-
sak & Darst, 2002; Prusak et al., 2004), adolescents were in the
7th and 8th grades, with an average age of 11 years. However,
adolescence is a long period of development that extends to
approximately 20 years (Lerner & Galambos, 1998; Race,
1995). In this period, the important and fast-paced physical,
psychological, and social changes take place together with the
transition from secondary/middle school to high school (Shaffer,
2005). Furthermore, these changes are accompanied by an in-
creasing in the diversity of interests of the adolescent, including
those related to the type of physical activity (Lubans, Morgan,
& McCormack, 2011; Tammelin et al., 2004; Fleming et al.,
1998; Hultsman, 1999; Lawson, 1998; Ward et al., 2008). The
current study, therefore, sought to understand the nature of
choices made by adolescents in physical education classes rela-
tive to high school grade level, age, gender, and type of activity.
Method
Participants
The participants included 271 high school students enrolled
in 10th, 11th, and 12th grade mixed classes (boys and girls),
and who were between the ages of 15 and 23 years (Table 1).
Importantly, the relationship between age and educational level
was not linear because many students had retention. All stu-
dents participated voluntarily and parents’ consent was ob-
Table 1.
Characteristics of the students in high school physical education classes
in relation to grade (10th, 11th, 12th), gender (boys [♂] and girls [♀]) ,
age (mean and standard deviation), and number of students (n).
Grade Gender Age n
♂ 16.0 (0.8) 69
10th
♀ 15.7 (0.6) 42
♂ 16.8 (0.7) 39
11th
♀ 17.0 (0.8) 39
♂ 17.8 (0.4) 32
12th
♀ 18.2 (1.0) 50
tained through the high schools’ administrators. This study was
approved by the local Institutional Review Board of the Uni-
versity of São Paulo.
Procedures
This study was conducted during physical education classes,
by the teacher, as part of the planned curriculum. Three pro-
grams were developed in a counterbalanced way involving the
following activities: walking, running and futsal (indoor soc-
cer).
In each program, during the first class, it was contextualized
with explanations about the benefits of the activity. In the fol-
lowing three consecutive classes, students were asked to choose
from four different practice schedules, with the following
themes: social, game-like, competition, and fitness.
For the walking activity these themes were:
 Social—Friends, music and fun: Students walked during 20
minutes. They could interact with each other and bring
sound equipment or CDs to be played on equipment sup-
plied by the school.
 Game-like—Treasure hunt: Students were divided into
groups according to the number of participants in the activity
and carried out the walking for 20 minutes. Every 4 minutes
they received a card with a clue about anything to be dis-
covered (a famous sportsman, the name of a sport, etc.).
When they received a new card, the clues will become easier.
Won the team at the end of the time discovered
first.Competition—Basketball Tournament: Students were
divided into teams and performed the activity during 20 mi-
nutes, around the basketball court. When they passed
through the baskets, a student with ball possession per-
formed a throw. The team that converted more points won.
 Fitness—Circuit Exercise: Students walked for 20 minutes.
Every four minutes they stopped and performed a different
exercise (handstand with feet on the wall); 20 abs; Crab (4
supports in the supine position); 20 dorsals; push-ups.
Concerning the running activity the themes above cited were:
 Social—Basic running: during 20 minutes the students ran
around the outdoor volleyball court, at a pace that did not
prevent them from interacting with colleagues, without los-
ing focus on the activity.
 Game-like—Summing points: the game was performed
individually. Students ran for 20 minutes. Along the way,
there were numbered cards scattered faces down on a table.
Every 4 minutes, they should draw a card (without delay).
164

A. S. DA S. FILHO ET AL.
At the end, the students added up their cards. One who ob-
tained the highest score won. It was not allowed to pick
more than one card at a time.
 Competition—Cross-Country: In groups, students ran in a
specific space of the block containing some obstacles.
When finalizing a certain amount of turns, each student re-
ceived a letter numbered related to its order of arrival. At
the end, the groups added their letters and one with more
points won.
 Fitness—Running with variations: the students ran during
20 minutes around the volleyball court. Cones placed every
five meters showed a different form of running: elevating
the heels, knees, leg stretched out in front, running back,
and sliding as if on roller skates.
And, regarding the futsal the following activities were pro-
vided for the student’s choices:
 Social—Touching the ball in groups: during 20 minutes the
students traveled a certain space, holding hands in a circle,
with two or more balls inside. During the journey, they
could not let the balls get out of the circle. If that happened,
they re-started the activity, without prejudice.
 Game-like—Taking care of the ball: individually, students
should drive with your feet a futsal ball freely around the
court for 20 minutes. They should protect their ball while
trying to kick the ball from another colleague. Won the
student who remained more time with his ball.
 Competition—Championship of mini-goal: the students
were divided into teams and competed in 4 rounds of
mini-soccer court with mini-goals, so teams are faced
throughout the 20 minutes. Won the team with more goals
in four minutes. Every four minutes the teams changed their
opponent. At the end of 20 minutes the team that won more
matches.
 Fitness—Circuit of Exercises: Students performed passes in
pairs moving around the court for 20 minutes. Every four
minutes they performed a different exercise: pass with the
head in pairs; abdominal passing the ball with the head
while elevate the trunk, passing the ball into double, carry-
ing the ball to mate running back and forth.
The students were allowed to change practice schedules on
each of three days, at their own discretion. At the beginning of
each class, all practice schedules were offered to the students,
along with accompanying explanations and instructions. During
the fifth class (the last), the students were asked to discuss their
experiences and activities, and to explain their motivations and
choices, which were collected as data. The physical education
classes were held twice per week, with duration of 50 minutes,
on an indoor sports court and an outdoor volleyball court.
Data Analysis
The dependent variable was the choice of theme in each ac-
tivity: social, competition, game-like and fitness. The results
were analyzed to identify main effects of choices in relation to
1) grade and gender; and 2) age and gender interactions in each
type of activity. These analyses were conducted using Trend
Module (Trend Analysis and Multiple Comparisons) of PEPI
software (Gahlinger & Abramson, 2005; Cattuzzo, Basso, Hen-
ry, & Oliveira, 2010). For all analyses the level of significance
was p < .05
Results
Walking
Grade and gender. Statistical analyses revealed effects for all
grades in relation to both males and females (Table 2). With
regard to the 10th graders, the results revealed that the boys
chose more walking activities with game-like and competition
themes than those that were considered social or related to fit-
ness (p < .01). The girls chose those that were considered social
more than any other type of walking activity (p < .01).
Regarding the 11th graders, the boys chose more walking ac-
tivities with game-like and competition themes than of a fitness
theme (p < .05), the girls chose the social theme most fre-
quently, and the fitness theme least frequently (p < .01).
Finally, with regard to the 12th graders, the results indicated
that the boys chose more walking activities with game-like and
competition themes than for fitness (p < .01), and they chose the
competition theme more often than the social theme (p < .01). The
girls chose the social walking activity with greater frequencies
than for the remaining themes (p < .01).
Age and gender. Statistical analyses did not reveal significant
differences for boys aged 19 years and older (Table 3). The
15-year-old boys more frequently chose walking activities with
a competition theme than one of fitness (p < .05). The girls
picked the social walking activity most frequently (p < .01).
For the 16-year-old students, the boys more often chose
walking activities with game-like and competition themes than
with a social theme (p < .01), and the competition walking ac-
tivity was the most popular (p < .01). The girls most frequently
chose the social walking activity (p < .01).
The 17-year-old boys chose the walking activity with a fit-
ness theme least frequently (p < .01). The 17-year-old girls
preferred the social walking activity over the other types (p < .01),
and preferred the competition theme to the fitness theme (p < .05).
The 18-year-old boys most frequently chose game-like and
competition themes over the fitness theme (p < .01), and they
chose the game-like walking theme over the social theme (p < .05).
The girls most frequently chose the social theme (p < .01), and
preferred the walking activity with a competition theme over
the fitness theme (p < .05).
For the 19-year-olds, differences were found only for the
girls, who most frequently chose the social theme, and least
Table 2.
Results of the trend analysis and multiple comparisons conduced for
boys (♂) and girls’ (♀) choices of all school grades (10th, 11th, 12th).
(Degrees of freedom = 3 for all comparisons)
Grade Gender Walking Running Futsal
♂ 2 = 38.60,
p < .01
2 = 35.43,
p < .01
2 = 30.58,
p < .00
10th
♀ 2 = 150.05,
p < .01
2 = 59.30,
p < .01
2 = 7.32,
p > .05
♂ 2 = 11.07,
p < .01
2 = 5.23,
p < .05
2 = 21.31,
p < .01
11th
♀ 2 = 61.03,
p < .01
2 = 34.77,
p < .01
2 = 11.34,
p < .01
♂ 2 = 33.05,
p < .01
2 = 21.00,
p < .01
2 = 25.44,
p < .01
12th
♀ 2 = 34.31,
p < .05
2 = 41.64,
p < .05
2 = 5.58,
p > .05

A. S. DA S. FILHO ET AL.
Table 3.
Results of the trend analysis and multiple comparisons conduced for
boys (♂) and girls’ (♀) choices of all ages (15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 years
or more) (Degrees of freedom = 3 for all comparisons).
Age Gender Walking Running Futsal
♂ 2 = 09.19,
p < .05
2 = 12.74,
p < .01
2 = 26.96
p < .01
15
♀ 2 = 88.95,
p < .01
2 = 31.43,
p < .01
2 = 1.37,
p > .05
♂ 2 = 27.96,
p < .01
2 = 24.92,
p < .01
2 = 27.09,
p < .01
16
♀ 2 = 51.70,
p < .01
2 = 18.07,
p < .01
2 = 21.48
p < .01
♂ 2 = 25.78,
p < .01
2 = 8.20,
p < .05
2 = 5.63
p > .05
17
♀ 2 = 44.81,
p < .01
2 = 43.56,
p < .01
2 = 6.12,
p > .05
♂ 2 = 21.44,
p < .01
2 = 23.44,
p < .01
2 = 18.33,
p < .01
18
♀ 2 = 36.59,
p < .01
2 = 29.12,
p < .01
2 = 9.97,
p < .01
♂ 2 = 5.24,
p > .05
2 = 0.98,
p > .05
2 = 10.22,
p < .05
19+
♀ 2 = 12.74,
p < .01
2 = 16.30,
p < .01
2 = 1.48,
p > .05
frequently chose the fitness theme (p < .05).
Running
Grade and gender. Statistical analyses did not revealed sig-
nificant differences for the boys in the 11th grade (Table 2).
With regard to the 10th grade, the boys chose the running activ-
ity with a fitness theme least frequently (p < .01), and the girls
chose the social running activity with greater frequencies than
for the remaining themes (p < .01), and more running activities
with game-like and competition themes than a fitness theme (p < .05).
The girls in the 11th grade chose those that were considered
social more than any other type of running activity (p < .01).
Finally, with regard to the 12th graders, the results indicated
that the boys chose more running activities with game-like and
competition themes than for fitness (p < .01), and the girls
chose the social running activity with greater frequencies than
for the remaining themes (p < .01) and preferred the game like
theme to the fitness theme (p < .05).
Age and gender. Statistical analyses did not reveal significant
differences just for boys aged 19 years and older (Table 3). For
the 15-year-old boys, the game like and competition themes
were preferred to the fitness theme (p < .05), and the girls
picked the social running activity most frequently (p < .01).
The 16-year-old boys chose the running activity with a fit-
ness theme least frequently (p < .01), and the girls chose more
running activities with game-like and social themes than of a
fitness theme (p < .05).
Regarding to the 17-year-old boys, they most frequently
chose running activity with competition theme over the fitness
theme (p < .05), and the 17 year-old girls preferred the social
running activity over the other types (p < .01).
The 18-year-old boys most frequently chose game-like and
competition themes over the fitness theme (p < .01), and the 18
year-old girls preferred the social running activity over the
other types (p < .01).
For the 19-year olds, differences were found only for the
girls, who most frequently chose the social theme, over the
game-like, competition and fitness themes (p < .05).
Futsal
Grade and gender. Statistical analyses revealed effects for all
grades in relation to the boys. To the girls was revealed just in
the 11th grade (Table 2). With regard to the 10th and 11th
graders, the results revealed that the boys chose more futsal
activities with game-like and competition themes than that was
considered social (p < .01). In the 10th grade the boys chose
more futsal activity with game-like theme than of a futsal fit-
ness theme (p < .01), and in the 11th grade chose more futsal
activity with competition theme than of a fitness theme (p < .05). The
girls in the 11th grade chose more the futsal activity with social
theme to the futsal activity with a game-like theme (p < .01).
Finally, with regard to the 12th grade, the results indicated that
the boys chose more futsal activities with game-like and com-
petition themes than of a social theme (p < .05), and chose
more futsal activity with competition theme than for fitness
theme (p < .01).
Age and gender. Statistical analyses did not reveal significant
differences for boys aged 17 years and the girls aged 15, 17 and
19 years old (Table 3). The results revealed that the 15-year-
old boys chose more futsal activities with game-like and com-
petition themes than those were considered social or related to
fitness (p < .05).
For the 16-year-old students, the boys more often chose fut-
sal activities with competition and game-like themes than with
a social theme (p < .01) and chose more futsal activity with
game-like theme than for fitness (p < .05). The 16 years-old-
girls preferred the social futsal activity over the other types (p < .05)
The 18-year-old boys most frequently chose futsal activity
with competition theme over the fitness and the social themes
(p < .01). The 18 years-old girls preferred the futsal activity
with a social theme over the game-like theme (p < .05).
Finally, the 19-year-old boys frequently chose the competi-
tion theme over the social theme (p < .05).
Discussion
This study investigated the choices made by adolescents
during walking, running, and futsal physical education high
school classes in relation to grade, age, and gender. The results
showed the following general tendencies of choices, or prefe-
rences: 1) social for girls; 2) competition and game-like for
boys; and 3) fitness least frequently chosen by both girls and
boys.
The girls’ choices were similar to those observed in the study
of Pruzak and Darst (2002) in which walking activities with a
strong social component were more attractive for adolescent
girls than other themes because they provide possibilities for
peer interaction. These authors observed that girls who have the
opportunity to interact with their peers, do so, and they openly
demonstrate satisfaction. Payne and Barnett (2006) suggested
that adolescents are increasingly dependent on friends to meet
many of their basic needs for social acceptance, and that some
activities are undertaken by groups of friends.
It appears that the social component is highly important to
166

A. S. DA S. FILHO ET AL.
adolescent development. Cole and Cole (2004) observed that in
the adolescent, significant changes in the biological system are
associated with equally significant changes in the way they
interact with families and peers. The social development of the
adolescent, claimed Race (1995), takes place in three main
phases: 1) at first, there is a tendency for the adolescent to in-
teract with peers of the same gender; 2) later, there is a ten-
dency for adolescents to increase their interactions with groups
of a different gender; and 3) thirdly, there occurs a trend called
disintegration, in which loving relationships evolve. In this
stage, individual relationships are more important than group
relationships.
Importantly, although the friends were reported as the most
important reasons for boys and girls students select activities
(Lubans, Morgan, & McCormack, 2011), our results indicate
that the tendency in choosing the social theme is specific to the
girls. Instead, the boys most often chose practice schedule that
are related to competition and are game-like. These results are
similar to those found in a previous study on younger adoles-
cents (Corrêa & Silva Filho, 2008). According to these authors,
the competition and game-like choice tendencies could be re-
lated to the developmental characteristics of the boys. Some
claim that, for boys, participation and quality of performance
are important for status reasons (McCabe, Roberts, & Morris,
1991). However, there appears to be an effect of activity speci-
ficity on the boys’ choices. Results revealed that boys did not
prefer the competition theme during the running program. It is
possible that the competitive running has demanded higher
physical conditioning to obtain success in comparing to the
other activities. For example, the running has been preferred by
individuals more physically active than walking (Greiwe &
Kohrt, 2000).
Our results suggest that changes in high school peer
groups—the result of age and grade transitions—which can
influence students’ interests and expectations about physical
activity, did not affect the choices they made. Although some
variations have been observed, the results did not show any
general tendency of change of focus of choice, as grades and
ages progressed. Based on this one could say that the social
preference for girls and the competition and game-like for boys
follow together with the grade and age changes in adolescence.
A particularly interesting finding is that the fitness theme
was the least popular of all choices, both for boys and girls. It
has been observed that fitness-type activities fit the desires and
expectations of younger and older adults more than for adoles-
cents (Corbin, 2001). But, why, then, don’t adolescents like
fitness activities? One possible explanation could be related to
the nature of the activities. Fitness can be viewed as a subset of
physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive
(Caspersen, Pereira, & Curran, 2000). Perhaps it is these cha-
racteristics—structured and repetitive—that don’t appeal to
adolescents.
Exception was observed with regarding the girls’ choices in
the futsal activity. Results showed that the social preference
was accompanied by that related to the fitness theme. One pos-
sible reason for these differences may be related to the social
and cultural influences. That is, although the sport of futsal is
known and practiced worldwide (Corrêa, Alegre, Freudenheim,
Santos, & Tani, 2012) some students reported that it was not a
feminine activity. They also said they feared the possibility of
physical contact with stronger guys. Similar reports can be
found in the study of Hill and Cleven (2005), pointing to lack
of models for girls in team sports.
In conclusion, the findings of the present study revealed that
the high school girls more frequently chose an activity with a
social theme; boys’ choices were related to competition and
game-like themes. The fitness theme was the least popular for
both girls and boys. The practical implications are that high
school teachers might use these findings to increase student
participation in walking, running, and futsal activities programs.
Activities for girls that include a social focus might have a
greater appeal, while competition and game-like activities
would likely have greater acceptance among male students.
Since different emphases were investigated within three spe-
cific activities, further research should analyze adolescents’
choices in other types of physical activity.
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