Open Journal of Geology, 2012, 2, 260-270 http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2012.24026 Published Online October 2012 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ojg) Petrofacies Evolution of Bayana Basin Sandstones of Mesoproterozoic Delhi Supergroup, Bharatpur District, Rajasthan, Northwestern India Abul Hasnat Masood Ahmad1, Chayanika Saikia2, Syed Mohammad Wasim3 1Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India 2Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH), Delhi, India 3Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India Email: ahmahmad2004@yahoo.com, chayanika.saikia08@gmail.com, w4wasimamuii@gmail.com Received June 2, 2012; revised June 29, 2012; accepted July 27, 2012 ABSTRACT The paper embodies results of petrofacies, detrital mineralogy and textural aspects of Bayana Basin sandstones of the Delhi Supergroup. These sandstones consisting of various types of quartz, feldspar, mica, rock fragments and heavy minerals are medium to fine grained and moderately well sorted. These sediments are generally subangular to sub- rounded with low sphericity. Various factors responsible for modification of the original detrital composition of the sandstones have been critically examined. Distance of transport is one of the factors which control the composition at the time of deposition. The plots of petrofacies in QtñFñL, QmñFñLt, QpñLvñLs and QmñPñK ternary diagrams sug- gest mainly basement uplift source (Craton interior) in a rifted continental margin basin setting, which has also received sediment input from recycled orogen provenance. Keywords: Petrofacies Evolution; Bayana Basin; Mesoproterozoic; Bharatpur District (India) 1. Introduction The relationship between plate tectonics and sandstone composition has been the subject of intensive research and discussion over the last three decades. Many studies have pointed to an intimate relationship between detrital sand composition and tectonic setting [1-7]. However, the correlation between tectonic setting and sandstone petrofacies may not always be valid, due to modification of sandstone compositions by recycling, transport and post depositional processes. The most no- table modifying agents are intense chemical weathering under a tropical humid climate and low relief [8-10], differential abrasion during pre-depositional and pre- burial transport [12,13] and diagenesis [14]. Sediment recycling [11], mixing of detritus derived from two sources, temporal changes in tectonic style [15], and long sediment transport across the mother plate to tectonically alien Basins also hinder the identification of generic tec- tonic setting and provenance. This paper attempts to the study petrofacies of the Bayana Basin sandstones of Bharatpur District in relation to depositional environ- ments. The petrofacies of this Basin is interpreted in the light of known evolution of th e Aravalli Craton, Keeping in view the various modifying factors that control and influence the original detrital compositions. 2. Geological Setting The studied Bayana Basin is co mposed of a 3000 m thick sequence of conglomerate, sandstone, shale, basal mafic volcanic flows and valcanoclastics. The Basin has been subjected to a three-tier classification, mainly on the ba- sis of two unconformities. The infillin gs of this Basin are represented by metasedimentary rocks and metavolcanics belonging to Mesoproterozoic Delhi Supergroup which has a faulted contact with Pre-Delhi rocks along its south-eastern fringe (Figures 1 and 2). Stratigraphically, the area is divisible into eight Formations that are form the oldest to youngest, the Nithar, Jahaj—Govindpura Volcanics, Jogipura, Badalgarh, Bayana, Damdama, (Al- war group), Kushalgarh and Weir (Ajabga rh group ) [16]. 3. Facies Analysis A total of fourteen lithofacies from seven Mesoprotozoic Formations of the Bayana Basin have been recognized on the basis of lithology and sedimentary structures. Four distinct facies assemblages have been identified based on the association of lithofacies, textural characteristics, *Corresponding a uthor. C opyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 261 00 400km Figure 1. Simplified tectonic map of Aravalli Mountain Range, NW Indian Shied (after Gupta et al., 1980). sedimentary structures and environment of deposition. The four main facies assemblage ascribed to tidally in fluenced fluvial deposition (Facies Association A), tidal flat deposition (Facies Association B), tidal channel de- position (Facies Association C) and wave & storm domi- nated shoreface deposition (Facies Associatio n D). These contrasting palaeoenvironmental settings suggest sedi- mentation at a Basin margin. Sediments were deposited in fluvial as well as shallow marine environments. Flu- vial deposits are limited, but tidal deposits are region- ally extensive. Sediments accumulated in a tide domi- nated estuary, on an intertidal flat, in tidal channel, in wave dominated shallow water environment, as well as in a storm dominated upper to lower shoreface. Evidence of alternate episodes of transgression and regression is well documented in the study area [17]. Also, primary sedimentary structures are mostly well preserved. Al- though interpretation of tidal regime in terms of a macro, meso or micro-tidal range is not easy, the sandstones show many features which are indicative of macro-tidal environment. The 85 m thick outcrop exposed at the Bayana locality represents fluvial deposits modified by tidal processes in tidal estuary settings, indicatin g that the coastline was macro tidal (>4 m), at least for some pe- riods. Other feature suggestive of macro-tidal are abun- dant parallel laminated sandstone facies, occasional oc- currences of herring-bone cross-bedding, and wavy bed- ding as well as interbedded sndstone-shale sequences. a Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 262 Figure 2. Geological map of Bayana Basin (after Singh, 1982). The Presence of hummocky cross-bedded sandstones suggests that the shoreface sediments of the Bayana Formation are storm-dominated. Overall, studieds sug- gest that the Bayana Basin sediments supplied during episodic transgressive and regressive phases were modi- fied by tidal processes and later by wave and storm- dominated processes in a shallow marine environment (Figure 3). 4. Petrography The textural and compositional study is based on 106 samples. The samples were selected in such a way that lateral and vertical variations within all formations are uniformly controlled. For quantitative analysis about 300 - 400 points per thin section were counted for determin- ing the modal composition of rocks under investigation. The graphic mean (Mz) of various samples range from 1.03 to 3.95, average 1.97 and most of the samples are medium grained. Inclusive graphic standard deviation (σI) values ranges from 0.41 to 1.29, average 0.63. The sand- stones are mostly moderately well sorted to moderately sorted. The mean roundness of the individual samples ranges from 0.26 to 0.46, average 0.35; in most samples the majority of the grains are subangular to sub rounded. The distribution of roundness in individual samples is invariably unimodal with subrounded as the modal class. The mean grain sphericity values range from 0.36 to 0.68, average 0.54. The studied sandstones are texturally sub- mature (Table 1). The sandstones are mainly composed of several varie- ties of quartz followed by feldspars, rock fragments, mica and heavy minerals. The average detrital minera- logy in the studied sandstones includes monocrystalline quartz (84.69%), polycrystalline recrystallized meta- morphic quartz (4.18%), stretched metamorphic quartz (2.36%), feldspar (3.98%), rock fragments (3.43%), mica (1%), and heavy minerals (0.27%) (Table 2). The indi- vidual Formation wise studies indicates that most of the samples fall in quartzarenite field, followed by sub- litharenite, feldspathic litharenite, arkose and subarkose fields. 5. Factor Controlling Detrital Mineralogy Distance of transport is one of the factors which control the composition at the time of deposition. The processes of mechanical breakdown, abrasion, hydrodynamic sort- ing during transportation etc. result in compositional ma- turation of detrital in to more quartzose detrital mode. The detrital grains of Bayan a Basin sandstones are in the sand size range and derived from only 100 km distance from Dausa uplift and Rajputana Craton [17]. Due to presence of small amount of feldspar and rock fragments in the studied sandstone, prolonged reworking and pre- Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 263 Figure 3. Diagrammatic representation of depositional environments of Bayana Basin. Table 1. Textural parameters of Bayana Basin sandstones, Delhi Supregroup, Rajasthan. Nithar Formation (Facies Association A & B) (No. of Samples 10) Jahaj-Govin dpura Formation (Facies Association B) (No. of Samples 19) Jogipura Form ation (Facies Association A, B & C) (No. of Samples 11) Badalgarh Formation (Facies Association A & B) (No. of Samples 13) Bayana Formation (Facies Association A & C) (No. of Samples 32) Damdama Formation (Facies Association A, C & D) (No. of Samples 13) Weir Formation (Facies Association D) (No. of Sam ples 8) Range Average Range Average Range AverageRange AverageRange AverageRange Average Range Average MZ 2.05 - 2. 7 2.3 2.05 - 3.952.2 1.13 - 3.1 1 2.4 1.6 3 - 1. 831.78 1.13 - 2. 391.55 1.03 - 2. 29 1. 72 1.41 - 2.251.87 σI 0.40 - 0. 82 0.64 4. 48 - 1.290.64 0.43 - 0.9 2 0.72 0.43 - 0. 630.51 0.48 - 0.7 70.64 0.58 - 0.8 0 0. 73 0.48 - 0.690.56 MR 0. 35 - 0.46 0.37 0.27 - 0.380.35 0.34 - 0.4 0 0.36 0.28 - 0. 360.34 0.26 - 0. 360.33 0.34 - 0. 37 0. 36 0.34 - 0.370.35 MS 0.36 - 0.50 0.41 0. 55 - 0.620.59 0.49 - 0.6 0 0.55 0.47 - 0. 550.50 0.43 - 0.5 80.49 0.51 - 0.6 8 0. 61 0.53 - 0.620.56 TM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM SM MZ = Graphic mean, σI = Inclusive Gra ph ic Standard deviation, MR = Mea n ro undness, MS = Mean sphericity, TM = Textural maturity, SM = Sub mature. sence of high gradient stream is quite likely within the basin. However, this premise doesn’t stand to scrutiny because rock fragment that could have been destroyed more easily are more common then feldspars. The presence of weathered feldspars grains as well as oversize pores indicates dissolution of detrital grains in the studied sandstones. The replacement of quarts grains by iron in some thin section suggests slight modification Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 264 CQ = Common quartz, RMQ = Recrystallize metamorphic quartz, SMQ = Stretched metamorphic quartz, CHT = Chert, MC = Mica, P = Plagioclase, O = Orthoclase, M = Microcline, SRF = Sedimentary roc fragments, MRF = Metamorphic rock fragments, VRF = Volcanic rock fragments, G = Glass, MT = Matrix, H = Heavy. Table 2. Range and average of mineralogical composition of Bayana Basin sandstones, Delhi Supergroup, Rajasthan. Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 265 of the composition of the sandstone. The study of grain contacts of the Bayana Basin sandstones indicates that the sandstones are subjected to compaction during burial and their original texture and fabric slightly modified by the process o f comp os ition. 6. Tectono—Provenance 1) Four triangular diagrams, QtñFñL, QmñFñLt, Qpñ- LvñLs and QmñPñK were used in this study (Table 3). Both QtñFñL and QmñFñLt Plots show full grain popu- lations, but with different emphasis. In the QtñFñL plot, where all quartz grains are plotted together, the emphasis is on grain stability, and thus on weathering, provenance relief, and transport mechanism as well as source rocks; while in QmñFñLt, where all lithic frag- ments are plot- ted together, the emphasis is shifted to- wards the grain size of source rock, because fine-grained rocks yield more lithic fragments in the sand size range. The Qpñ- LvñLs and QmñPñK plots show only partial grain popu- lations but reveal the character of polycrystalline and monocrystalline components of the framework, respec- tively. 2) The study revealed tha t monocrystalline quartz (Qm) is the dominant mineral in the sand stones. Its percentag es range from 58.51% to 96.7% (av. 84.69%. Polycrystal- line quartz (Qp) includes both recrystallized quartz and stretched metaquartz: the former ranges from 0.3% to 5.54% (av. 4.18%) and latter ranges from 0.1% to 2.1% (av. 2.36%) of the detrital fraction. The feldspars (F) occur in small amounts in the sandstones (3.98%). Rock fragments include shale, siltstone, chert, schist, gneiss, quartzite and mafic volcanics lithic; their percentages range from 0.36% to 10.16% (av. 4.18%). 3) Most of the samples of the Bayana Basin sandstones lay in the continental block provenance field on the Qtñ- FñL (Figure 4(a)) plot, suggesting contribution from the craton interior with basement uplift. The remaining of the samples fall in the recycled orogen provenance which suggests their derivation from metasedimentary and se- dimentary rocks that were originally deposited along former passive continental margins [6,18]. The QmñFñLt plot (Figure 4(b)) shows that the samples fall in conti- nental block provenance with little contribution from the recycled orogen provenance. In the QmñPñK diagram (Figure 4(d)); the data lie in the continental block pro- venance reflecting maturity of the sediments and stability of the source area. The QpñLvñLs plot (Figure 4(c)), which is based on rock fragments population reveals the polymineralic nature of the source region and gives a more resolved picture about the tectonic elements. 4) The plots of Bayana Basin sandstones on QtñFñL and QmñFñLt diagrams suggest that the detritus of the sandstones were derived from the granite-gneisses ex- humed in the craton interior and medium to high grade metamorphosed supracrustals forming recycled orogen provenance (Metamorphic quartz, muscovite & biotite, plagioclase, epido te, magnetite). This suggests derivation of the sandstone from stable parts of the craton, with perhaps an equal contribution from a recycled orogen. In the QpñLvñLs plot, the sample mostly plot in the mixed orogenic provenance with contributions from both an arc oro gen source and a fold thrust belt source. Th e Q mñP ñK diagram suggests the maturity and stability of the source region. This may have stemmed from a very long period of tectonic quiescence and mature geomorphology of the source areas. The composition and maturity of sands is primarily controlled by the source rock and tectonics, but secondary processes, such as climate and weathering and depositional reworking and abrasion, acting singly or in combinations, tends to destroy th e labile constituents and produce quartz rich sand. Intense weathering under warm and humid climates and long residence time in soils may destroy feldspars and other labile constituents resulting in high degree of compositional m at uri t y of sediments. 5) The relative abundance of monocrystalline quartz to that of polycrystalline quartz reflects the maturity of the sediments, because polycrystalline quartz is eliminated by recycling and disintegrates in the zone of weathering as does strained quartz [9]. The sandstones have consi- derably high percentages of monocrystaline quartz (84.68%) as compared to polycrystalline quartz (15.32%), which indicates removal of polycrystalline quartz by weathering and recycling. The abundance of feldspar also serves as a guide to determine the maturity index since much of the feldspar is destroyed by weathering where relief is low and rainfall high, the occurrence of weathered and fresh feldspars together may indicates derivation from two different sources or deep erosion. 6) Considering the regional perspective, Mesopro- terozoic Delhi Supergroup deposits are wide spread in outcrop and the subsurface throughout the Aravalli ñ Delhi mountain belt . The Delhi fold B elt consist s of highly folded and deformed rocks exhibiting polyphase meta- morphism of deep water to platformal sediments. Gener- ally, the mountain belts represent regions where oceans might have opened and closed, and they are the products of continental collision [19]. These mountains had been eroded and had low relief, typical of tectonically stable cratonic areas. Plate tectonic processes of continental collision, suturing and consumption of the crust at plate margins by thrusting or under plating led to crustal thickening and formation of orogenic belts in Phanero- zoic and Proterozoic times. Knowledge of crustal struc- tural and tectonics of the ancient collision belts can lead to better understanding of the mechanism of crustal growth processes, provided, later tecton ic activity has not disturbed the original structure. Rift open ing of the Delhi Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 266 Qt = Total quartz, F = Total feldspar, L = Total unstable lithic fragments, Qm = Monocrystalline quartz, Qp = Polycrystalline quartz, Lt = Total lithic fragments, P = Plagioclase, K= Orthoclase & Microcline. Table 3. Percentages of framework modes of the sandstones of Bayana Basin, Delhi Supergroup, Rajasthan (based on Dickinson, 1985 Classification). Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 267 a d c Figure 4. (a)-(d) Plots of the Bayana Basin sandstones, according to Dickinson (1985). Basin is now considered as well established [17]. The cratonic sediments were deposited in a shelf sea during the initial stages of Basin opening. Delhi Supergroup rocks were deposited in either fluvial or various coastal environments. In its northeastern part, the Delhi Basin exhibits several depositories that are small in size and are separated from each other by uplands. A series of north to northeast trending synsedimentary faults have been recognized [17], which bound the depositories are intra- basinal faults. A total of 2 35 measur ements of azimuth o f cross-bedding (both trough and tabular) were collected from 10 localities belonging to 7 Formations. Paleocur- rent data in the study area show that sediment dispersal was multidirectional. Maximum sediments derived from the Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) of the Aravalli Block (AB) and small quantities of sediments derived from the Bundelkhand Granite ñ Gneiss (BGG) of the Bundelkhand Block (BB) of the North Indian Craton (NIC) (Figure 5). It may be inferred that fluvial deposits were formed in a low-lying stable continental area during regression while fluvial and shallow marine deposits were formed in the shelf margin during transgression [20]. In view of this, it can be considered that sediments in and around the Banded Gneissic Complex and the Bundelkhand Granite ñ Gneiss were deposited on a low- lying landmass that form a stable continental shelf. 7) On the basis of geochemical data, the provenance analysis suggests that the basin received debris from dif- Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 268 Figure 5. Paleocurrent distribution patterns in different formation of Bayana Basin. ferent sources during its long depositional history. The sandstone of the Bayana Formation was derived from a source consisting of granotoids and mafic rocks. The Damdama and Weir sandstones received debris from a source comprising granitoids and TTG in different pro- portions. The sandstones of the Nithar and Badalgarh Copyright © 2012 SciRes. OJG
A. H. M. AHMAD ET AL. 269 Formations were probably derived from a granite domi- nated source terrain [11]. A characteristic of source ter- raines along the suture zones is a large compositional range of the rocks (e.g. suture zones of Himalaya, Apen - nines and Pyrenees). However, in the entire suture zone, sandstones in general are more feldspathic than those of deposited in other area [21]. Most of foreland Basin sandstones are fairly uniform in composition [21] re- flecting dominance of source rocks that are uplifted and eroded from the thrust sheet and deposited in foreland basin. The large scale compositional variation of the Ba- yana sandstones reflects the existence of source terrain of a similar to suture zones of Himalaya, Apennines and Pyrenees. Similar types of suture zones are common in Aravalli ñ Delhi foldbelt [22]. The sand stones of the Ba- yana Basin exhibit large variation in K2O/Na2O (0.16 - 10.4) and Al2O3/Ca + Na (10 - 112) ratio and their Fe2O3 + MgO contents are low (0.21 - 11). In general they are enriched in SiO2 and are significantly depleted in Na2O and CaO. These are the geochemical characteris tics which are generally by sedimentary rocks of passive margins [11]. 7. Conclusions a) The Bayana Basin defining eastern most limit of the great Delhi Basin is a fossil graben with over 3000 m thick metavolcanics and metasedimentary successions. Petrographic studies reveal that grains are medium to fine grained, moderately well sorted, subangular to sub- rounded and have low sphericity. The framework grains are mostly quartz and least frequently of feldspar, rock fragments and heavy minerals. The composite distribu- tion of cross bedding azimuths aggregated from the study area indicates dispersal of sediments from four different directions, indicating multidirectional clastic transport in offshore, onshore and long shore direction. The source rocks were most probably BGC and Aravalli Supergroup. b) The depositional processes and environment have been employed to categorize four main genetic lithofa- cies assemblages. Facies assemblage A represents tidally influenced fluvial deposits. Facies assemble B tidal/inter- tidal deposits. Facies assemble C represents tidal channel deposits and facies assemblage D represents wave and storm dominated shoreface deposits. These contrasting paleoenvironmental setting suggest deposition at a Basin margin, through several episodes of transgression and consecutive regression. Bimodal to quadrimodal distribu- tion pattern of paleocurrent for different Formations of Bayana Basin indicate dispersal of sediment by multidi- rectional currents in nearshore shallow marine environ- ment. c) The Qt-F-L diagram which emphasized factors con- trolled by provenance relief, weathering and transport mechanism is based on total quartzose, feldspar and lith ic content. Most of the samples lie in continental block provenance field suggesting contribution from the craton interior with basement uplift. Rest of the samples fall in the recycled orogen provenance which suggest their de- rivation from metasedimentary and sedimentary rocks that were originally deposited along former passive con- tinental margins. The Qm-F-Lt plot showed that the samples fall in continental block provenance with little contribution from the recycled orogen provenance. In the Qm-P-K diagram, the data lie in the continental block provenance reflecting maturity of sediments and stability of the source area. In Qp-Lv-Ls plot, the sample data mostly fall in mixed orogenic provenance with contribu- tion from arc orogen source and fold thrust belt source. Analysis of data from the plotting of triangular diagram does not exactly suggest the source interpretation which is due to weathering and post-diagenetic modification of the unstable minerals. Considering the analysis of data plotted on different triangular diagram, a tectonic collage can be suggested as tectonic setting. This in terpretation is also supported by the evolutionary history of the Bayana Basin. d) The sandstones are quartzrich, primarily derived from a granite-gneiss terrain of a craton interior as well as minor pre-existing sedimentary sequences. The sand- stones of the Nithar and the Badalgarh Formations had their source in a granite dominated source terrain. 8. 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