Journal of Minerals & Materials Characterization & Engineering, Vol. 6, No.2, pp 151-167, 2007
jmmce.org Printed in the USA. All rights reserved
151
In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones
in the Economic Age Group (30-40years)
P. Sundaramoorthi *, S. Kalainathan**, G. Kanchana***, R. Santhi *
*Department of Physics, Mahendra Engineering College, Mallasamudram (W), Namakkal, India.
(E-mail: [e-mail])
**Department of Physics, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
***Department of Bio-Chemistry, MCAS, Rasipuram, Namakkal, India.
Abstract
Electrical and thermal conductivity studies play a vital role in the field of science and
technology. According to the conductivity terms, materials can be classified in to good conductors,
bad conductors, semiconductors and super conductors. In the free electron theory, electron only
acts as carrier and carries its energy from one point to another point either natural or forced. In
the present investigation, five renal stones are collected from the poor hard working males who are
affected with mineral deposition in the urinary tracts. The stones are collected from the hospital by
Lithotropic treatment process. Using two- probes method, the electrical conductivities are
measured at different temperatures. The thermal conductivity and temperature coefficients are
calculated. The results are reported and discussed.
1. Introduction
The conductivity of many biomaterials has been reported [1]. The applied problems, such as
thrombogenesis and enzymatic activity of cytochrome oxides, have been dealt with either semi
conductivity or electrets behavior of different biomaterials. In the present study, both these aspect
have been attempted on the same materials, namely renal stones or renal calculi. The study of
electrets behaviors and conductivity becomes essential in order to find an inhibitor for renal stones
or prevent its growth. The electrets behavioral of the renal stone material was studied through
TSD, TSP [2,3,4]. Here the investigators report the D.C conductivity of kidney stones as a function
of temperature and applied electric field and its interpretations.

152 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
2. Materials and Methods
Kidney stones are removed from the affected patients by Litho tropic process in the Rasi stones
diagnosing center in Rasipuram, Namakkal, India, and are used in the present investigations. These
stones constituents are analyzed by biochemical analysis process. The stone constituents are
reported in the Table 1. The major constituents of the samples are calcium phosphate and / or
oxalate ions bond to an organic and sulponated muscoproteins [5]. The investigation results on
TSP, TSD are reproducible from sample to sample of stone. However it varied slightly from stone
to stone of either oxalate contents or phosphate contents depending upon the stone compositions.
Due to the lengthy process of conductivity measurement, only five samples were used (Figure 1
through 5).
Figure 1. Sample A renal stone.

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 153
Figure 2. Sample B renal stone.
Figure 3. Sample C renal stone.

154 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
Figure 4. Sample D renal stone.
Figure 5. Sample E renal stone.

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 155
Table 1. Chemical composition present in the renal stones
Stones Chemical constituents
A Calcium oxalate di-hydrate, calcium phosphate.
B Calcium oxalate monohydrate, Calcium oxalate di-hydrate.
C Calcium oxalate monohydrate Phosphates.
D Calcium oxalate monohydrate, Phosphate, Calcium oxalate di-hydrate.
E Calcium oxalate monohydrate
Stone samples are prepared for conductivity measurement initially. The bloodstains and other
impurities are removed from the surfaces of the sample and dried naturally. Then the sample
surfaces are smoothened by using very thin grain grinder. The renal stone samples are placed in
between two aluminum probes with deep contact. The sample holders with the sample are kept
inside the micro oven, which is automatically heated with electronic temperature monitor and
controller (the accuracy is 2
o
C). The D.C conductivity are studied at the temperature (T) from 295
K to373K at a irregular temperature intervals. The electric field applied to the probes starts from
1V to 20Vand the corresponding currents are measured. All the sample are kept at a particular
temperature at least 15 minutes to reach the saturation. Then the measurements are started. At
higher voltage and higher temperature the current settling time are observed. The transient current
of the sample mainly depends upon the presence of carriers in a sample according to the Curie-
Von-Schweidlar law. The conductivity has been reported for polymer samples [6-8] and ionic
materials [9-10].
3. Results
The approximate area of each samples are measured by using graph sheet.
The temperatures are varied from 295K to 373 K. The applied voltage (V), corresponding current
measurements (I), resistance (R), resistivity (ρ), conductivity (σ) and current density (J) of each
sample at a particular temperature are reported in Tables 2 through 16.

156 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
Table 2. Electrets properties of renal stone at 30
o
C, A=152x10
-6
m
2
, L=10x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in
micro -amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in
10
7
Ohm. M
(ρ).
Current density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4
4
5
6.5
7
8
8
1
1.25
1.2
1.076
1.142
1.125
1.25
6.5789
8.2236
7.8947
7.0789
7.5131
7.4013
8.2236
0.026
0.026
0.033
0.039
0.046
0.053
0.053
R = 1.149 X 10
6
ρ = 7.5591X10
7
J =0.0409
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)= 1.328x10
-8
mho.m-1
Table 3. Electrets properties of renal stone at 60°C, A=152x10
-6
m
2
, L=10x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in
micro -amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in
10
7
Ohm. M
(ρ).
Current density
(J). Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3
3
4
5
6
7
7
1.33
1.66
1.5
1.4
1.333
1.285
1.428
8.767
10.965
9.8684
9.2105
8.7697
8.4539
9.3947
0.021
0.021
0.026
0.032
0.039
0.046
0.046
R = 1.4207 X 10
6
ρ = 9.3469X10
7
J =0.033
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.0698x10
-8
mho.m-1

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 157
Table 4. Electrets properties of renal stone at 96
o
C, A=152x10
-6
m
2
, L=10x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
2
2.5
2
2.333
2.666
2.25
2.5
13.1578
16.4473
13.1578
15.3486
17.5394
14.8026
16.4473
0.013
0.013
0.019
0.019
0.026
0.026
0.026
R = 1.149 X 10
6
ρ = 15.2715X10
7
J =0.0202
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=6.548x10
-9
mho.m-1
Table 5. Electrets properties of renal stone at 28
o
C, A=33x10
-6
m
2
, L=6x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
100
110
120
140
150
165
175
180
0.03
0.0364
0.0417
0.0429
0.0467
0.0485
0.0514
0.0556
5.4545
6.4182
7.5818
7.8000
8.4909
8.8182
9.3454
10.1090
3.03
3.33
3.63
4.24
4.54
5.10
5.30
5.45
R = 1.149 X 10
6
ρ = 8.02725X10
7
J =4.2525
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.2457 x10
-7
mho.m-1

158 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
Table 6. Electrets properties of renal stone at 65
o
C, A=33x10
-6
m
2
, L=6x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
6
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
40
70
80
85
100
118
130
140
150
0.05
0.0429
0.05
0.0589
0.06
0.059
0.0615
0.0642
0.0667
9.0909
7,8600
9.0909
10.7690
10.9090
10.7272
11.1818
11.6727
12.1272
1.12
2.12
2.42
2.57
3.03
3.57
3.93
4.42
4.45
R = 0.05702 X 10
6
ρ = 10.3676X10
6
J =3.07
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=9.645 x 10
-8
mho.m-1
Table 7. Electrets properties of renal stone at 98
o
C, A=33x10
-6
m
2
, L=6x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
6
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
25
35
50
60
65
75
90
100
120
0.1
0.0857
0.08
0.0833
0.0923
0.0933
0.0889
0.09
0.0833
1.8182
1.5582
1.4545
1.5145
1.6782
1.6964
1.6164
1.6364
1.5145
0.75
1.06
1.51
1.18
1.96
2.27
2.73
3.63
3.64
R = 0.0885 X 10
6
ρ = 1.6097X10
6
J =2 .087
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=6.212 x 10
-8
mho.m-1

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 159
Table 8. Electrets properties of renal stone at 30
o
C, A=22.5x10
-6
m
2
, L=5x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
6
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
20
5
7
10
12
15
17
20
22
25
0.4
0.571
0.6
0.667
0.667
0.706
0.7
0.727
0.8
8.889
12.6889
13.333
14.8222
14.8222
15.6889
15.5516
16.1556
17.7778
0.221
0.311
0.444
0.533
0.666
0.755
0.889
0.978
1.111
R =0 .6486 X 10
6
ρ = 14.4151X10
6
J=0.6569
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=6.937 x 10
-9
mho.m-1
Table 9. Electrets properties of renal stone at 58
o
C, A=33x10
-6
m
2
, L=6x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
6
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
3
5
6
8
9
11
15
19
22
1.333
1.2
1.333
1.25
1.333
1.272
1.0667
0.9474
0.9090
2.9556
2.6667
2.9556
2.7778
2.6667
2.8267
2.3704
2.1053
2.0200
0.133
0.222
0.266
0.355
0.400
0.489
0.669
0.844
0.9780
R = 1.1826 X 10
6
ρ = 2.5938X10
6
J =0.484
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=3.855x 10
-9
mho.m-1

160 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
Table 10. Electrets properties of renal stone at 95
o
C, A=22.5x10
-6
m
2
, L=5x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
8
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
2
3
4
6
7
9
13
15
18
2
3
2
1.667
1.7142
1.5556
1.2308
1.2
1.111
4.444
6.6667
4.4444
3.7044
3.8093
3.4569
2.6667
2.4689
2.1268
0.88
0.133
0.177
0.267
0.311
0.400
0.578
0.667
0.800
R = 1.7198 X 10
6
ρ = 3.9577X10
6
J =0.464
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=2.661x 10
-9
mho.m-
1
Table 11. Electrets properties of renal stone at 28
o
C, A=20x10
-6
m
2
, L=4x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
15
19
25
30
38
45
70
78
90
0.2
0.2667
0.3157
0.32
0.333
0.3157
0.311
0.2286
0.2308
0.222
4.000
5.3340
6.3140
6.400
6.600
6.3140
6.2220
4.5720
4.6160
4.4440
0.50
0.75
0.95
1.25
1.50
1.90
2.25
3.50
3.90
4.50
R = 0.2743X 10
6
ρ = 5.4874X10
7
J =2.049
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.822x 10
-8
mho.m-
1

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 161
Table 12. Electrets properties of renal stone at 70
o
C, A=20x10
-6
m
2
, L=4x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
6
10
15
20
26
32
40
52
60
75
0.333
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3847
0.375
0.35
0.3077
0.3
0.2667
6.6600
8.000
8.000
8.000
7.6940
7.5000
7.000
6.1540
6.000
5,3340
0.30
0.50
1.10
1.30
1.60
2.00
2.60
2.70
3.00
3.75
R = 0.3517X 10
6
ρ = 7.0342X10
7
J =1.885
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.422x 10
-8
mho.m-1
Table 13. Electrets properties of renal stone at 98
o
C, A=20x10
-6
m
2
, L=4x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
8
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
3
8
12
15
18
25
32
40
46
50
0.667
0.5
0.5
0.5333
0.5556
0.48
0.4375
0.4
0.3913
0.4
1.3334
1.0000
1.0000
1.0666
1.1112
0.9600
0.8750
0.8000
0.7826
0.8000
0.15
0.40
0.60
0.75
0.90
1.25
1.60
2.00
2.30
2.50
R = 0.4864X 10
6
ρ = 0.9728X10
8
J =1.246
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.0279x 10
-9
mho.m-1

162 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
Table 14. Electrets properties of renal stone at 28
o
C, A=9x10
-6
m
2
, L=3x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
26
35
45
48
78
90
109
122
140
170
0.0769
0.1142
0.125
0.1230
0.1282
0.133
0.31284
0.1311
0.1286
0.1176
2.5633
3.5067
4.1667
4.1000
4.2733
4.4433
5.2800
4.3700
4.2867
3.9200
3.32
3.88
5.33
5,00
8.66
10.00
12.11
13.55
15.55
18.88
R = 0.12063X 10
6
ρ = 4.1210X10
7
J =9.628
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=2.426x 10
-8
mho.m-1
Table 15. Electrets properties of renal stone at 65
o
C, A=9x10
-6
m
2
, L=3x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in micro
-amperes (I).
Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density
(J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
15
25
30
38
50
57
65
74
82
100
0.1338
0.16
0.2
0.2105
0.2
0.2105
0.2154
0.2162
0.2195
0.2
3.7933
5.333
6.667
7.0167
6.6667
7.0167
7.1800
7.2666
7.3167
6.6667
1.66
2.77
3.33
4.22
5.55
6.33
7.22
8.22
9.11
11.11
R = 0.19654X 10
6
ρ = 6.4863X10
7
J =5.952
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.542x 10
-8
mho.m-1

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 163
Table 16. Electrets properties of renal stone at 99
o
C, A=9x10
-6
m
2
, L=3x10
-3
m
S.NO
Voltage applied
in Volts (V).
Current measured in
micro -amperes (I). Resistance
10
+6
(Ohm).
Resistivity in 10
7
Ohm. M (ρ).
Current
density (J).
Amp/m
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
8
15
20
26
34
38
42
45
50
58
65
70
74
78
0.25
0.2667
0.25
0.2308
0.2059
0.2105
0.2145
0.2222
0.22
0.2069
0.2350
0.2
0.2027
0.2
8.333
8.8900
8.3333
7.6933
6.8633
7.0167
7.1433
7.4000
7.4000
6.8967
7.8333
6.6667
6.7567
6.6667
0.88
1.66
2.22
2.88
3.77
4.22
4.66
5.00
5.55
6.44
7.22
7.77
8.22
8.66
R = 0.22X 10
6
ρ = 7.4209X10
7
J =4.399
Coefficient of electrical conductivity (σ)=1.3475 x 10
-8
mho.m-1
4. Results and Discussion
We are unable to measure the hall coefficient of the renal stones. The stones containing collagen
like micro-protein and apatite also have some organic matrix like protein at 5% of the total weight
[13]. The protein matrix is clearly visible under a scanning microscope. The D.C electrical
conductivity of the renal stones are compared and calculated with the standard ionic conductors
[11] and semiconductors [12].
The ionic conduction for the renal stone is
σ=σ
1
exp
(A/KT)
+σ
2
exp
(-B/KT)
Where σ
1
, σ
2
are the zero field conductivity, A and B are constants. The two exponential terms are
nature of normal conductors.

164 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
In semiconductors the conductivity
σ=σ
0
exp
(-Eg/2KT)
Here σ
0
is the zero field conductivity and Eg is the activation energy of the conductors at a
particular temperature (T). Because of practical inconvenience of electron microscope (SEM), a
fine powder of kidney stone was observed under a high resolution optical microscope and shows
fibrils of protein. Thus renal stones can be regarded as a mixture of semi conducting materials like
N type and P type, but totally it behaves like N type material or conductors. Hence, conductivity of
a kidney stone shows it may be interpreted in terms of a partially compensated semiconductor.
Available mechanism for conduction of renal stones may be sought with the help of various
scattering mechanism of conductors and semiconductors [14]. The conductivity of samples
depends upon the scattering by lattice vibrations. In conductor the curve between conductivity and
temperature should be straight line, but in semiconductor, it is not in usual [15].
The TSP, TSD data of kidney stones also give added information about its conduction
mechanism [2, 3]. For the TSP, TSD conductivity of a sample, the changing current is composed
of three components, which is conduction, polarization and depolarization. When temperature
increases, the conductivity of a samples is increased, the polarization and depolarization peaks
merge in the conduction current or only a part of it is observable [16]. The voltage dependence of
conductivity decreases with rise of temperature (T). The current density decreases, which shows
the conduction is in non-ohmic. This change suggests a warm electron effect [17]. At higher
temperature, the current density is directly proportional to voltage and gives the ohmic behaviors.
This is clear that for a sample at higher temperature, the thermal energy difference between the
charge carriers and lattices are relatively low or due to asymmetric effect [18] formed in inside the
crystals of calcium oxalates and calcium phosphates.

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 165
Table 17. Electrical parameters of renal stone samples
S No Stones Temperature
in degree
Celsius
R in ohms ρ
Ohm-m
J
Amp/m
2
1 A
30 1.149 X 10
6
7.5591X10
7
0.0409
60 1.4207 X 10
6
9.3469X10
7
0.033
96 1.149 X 10
6
15.2715X10
7
0.0202
2 B
28 1.149 X 10
6
8.02725X10
7
4.2525
65 0.05702 X 10
6
10.3676X10
6
3.07
98 0.0885 X 10
6
1.6097X10
6
2.087
3 C
30 0 .6486 X 10
6
14.4151X10
6
0.6569
58 1.1826 X 10
6
2.5938X10
6
0.484
95 1.7198 X 10
6
3.9577X10
6
0.464
4 D
28 0.2743X 10
6
5.4874X10
7
2.049
70 0.3517X 10
6
7.0342X10
7
1.885
98 0.4864X 10
6
0.9728X10
8
1.246
5 E
28 0.12063X 10
6
4.1210X10
7
9.628
65 0.19654X 10
6
6.4863X10
7
5.952
99 0.22X 10
6
7.4209X10
7
4.399

166 P. Sundaramoorthi, S. Kalainathan, G. Kanchana, and R. Santhi Vol.6, No.2
Table 18. Thermal and Electrical conductivity relation with the Temperature. Loraznts
constant
( L
o
)= 2.44x 10
-8
wΩk
-2
SNo Name of the
sample
Conductivity
(σ) X10
-8
mho-m
-1
Temperature
in degree Celsius
Thermal
conductivity
K= σL
o
T X10
-14
W/M/K
1 A 1.328 30 0.9721
1.0698 60 1.5662
0.6548 96 15.3381
2 B 12.457 28 8.5106
9.645 65 15.297
6.212 98 14.551
3 C 0.6937 30 0.5077
0.3855 58 0.5456
0.2661 95 6.1682
4 D 1.822 28 1.2448
1.422 70 2.4288
0.10279 98 2.4941
5 E 2.426 28 1.6570
1.542 65 2.4456
1.3475 99 3.255
Table 19. Temperature coefficient of the renal stone at different temperatures.
Sample Temperature
minimum in
degree Celsius
Temperature
Maximum in
degree Celsius
Temperature coefficient
of the sample.
α=(R
2
-R
1
)/(R
1
T
2
-R
2
T
1
)
A 30 60 0.01032
30 96 0.02882
B 28 65 0.01010
28 98 0.0239
C 30 95 0.09122
58 95 0.04266
D 28 98 0.0159
28 70 0.00827
E 28 99 0.01718
28 65 0.03642

Vol.6, No.2 In-vitro Studies of Artificially Removed Human Renal Stones 167
Conclusion
All the renal stones thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and temperature co-efficient
are measured. At higher temperature, the thermal conductivity of all the samples is constant, but
the electrical conductivity varied. All the stones are positive temperature coefficient materials. The
entire samples are high conductivity at low temperature, but when the temperature increases, the
conductivity decreases, except E stone.
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