
B. Y. ASHBAKER, J. MORGAN
with second class pupils. That would turn an educational op-
portunity into a democratic disaster” (Kerry & Kerry, 2003: p.
79).
What is abundantly clear is that training in how to work ef-
fectively with other adults (in particular paraeducators) cannot
be an elective in a teacher education program—either general
or special education. Kamman and Long (2010) describe—and
recommend—an intensive induction training for special educa-
tors, ensuring teacher quality and retention and including
knowledge and skills relating to collaborative work. Unfortu-
nately, such training is not commonly available, and we still
have a generation of teachers in classrooms around the world
who have received little if any training in how to work effect-
tively with paraeducators. This being the case, we should be
seeking early answers to the following questions:
1) What models exist of effective paraeducator employment
and supervision (meeting the needs of students and adults
alike)?
2) How can these models be adopted/adapted to meet the
needs of a range of educational systems and provision without
lessening their effectivenes s?
3) How can teacher education best be involved with these
models, to ensure cohesion and thorough preparation and pro-
fessional development for both teachers and paraeducators?
Paraeducators can be of inestimable value to inclusive class-
rooms, but this value can only be truly realized when special
educators take the initiative to be the manager of their own
classrooms—when they take upon themselves the responsibility
to work with paraeducators as fellow team members—in accor-
dance with recommendations made here by those who have
made it their study.
REFERENCES
Allen, K., Broughton, K., Ashbaker, B., & Morgan, J. (1996). Teachers
and paraeducators: Building stronger instructional teams. Utah Spe-
cial Educator, 16, 17.
Allen, M., A., & Ashbaker, B. Y. (2004). Strengthening schools: Invol-
ving para-professionals in crisis prevention and intervention. Inter-
vention in School and Clinic, 39 , 139-146.
doi:10.1177/10534512040390030201
Appl, D. (2006). First-year early childhood special education teachers
and their assistants: “Teaching along with her.” Teaching Exceptional
Children, 38, 34-4 0.
Ashbaker, B. Y., & Morgan, J. (2004). A legal memorandum: Quarterly
law topics for school leaders. Reston, VA: National Association of
Secondary Schoo l Principals.
Ashbaker, B. Y., & Morgan, J. (2006). Paraeducators in the classroom.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Blacher, J., & Rodriguez, T. (2007). Holding on to their kitestrings:
Para-professional support in inclusive settings. Exceptional Parent,
37, 74-76.
Blair, J. (2002). Program finds new teachers in unexpected places: Schools.
Education Week, 21, 9.
Blalock, G. (1991). Paraeducators: Critical team members in our spe-
cial education programs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, 200-
214. doi:10.1177/105345129102600404
Brant, J., & Lesley, B. (2009). Many hands make light work: How
might acting as teaching assistant, help pre-service teachers develop
their understanding of pupils’ learning needs in London Secondary
schools? London: University of London Institute of Education.
Broer, S. M., Doyle, M. B., & Giangreco, M. F. (2005). Perspectives of
students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with
paraeducator support . Exceptional Children, 71 , 415-430.
Calder, I., & Grieve, A. (2004) Working with other adults: What teachers
need to know. Educational St udies, 30, 113-126.
doi:10.1080/0305569032000159778
Carnahan, C. R., Williamson, P., Clarke, L., & Sorensen, R. (2009). A
systematic approach for supporting paraeducators in educational set-
tings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41, 34-43.
Causton-Theoharis, J., Giangreco, M. F., Doyle, M. B., & Vadasy, P. F.
(2007). Paraeducators: The “sous chefs” of literacy instruction. Tea-
ching Exceptional Children, 40, 56-62.
Center for Research on Education: Diversity & Excellence (2000). Exa-
mining latino paraeducators’ interactions with Latino students. ERIC
Clearing House on Languages an d Linguists, EDO-FL-00- 1 5 .
Chopra, R. V., Sandoval-Lucero, E., Aragon, L., Bernal, C., De Balde-
ras, H. B., & Carroll, D. (2004). The paraeducator role of connector.
Remedial and Special Edu c a ti o n , 25, 219-231.
doi:10.1177/07419325040250040501
Cobb, C. (2007). Training paraeducators to effectively work with all
students. Reading Teacher, 60, 686- 689. doi:10.1598/RT.60.7.10
Cor tese, A. (2005). Take a good look at paraeducators. Amer ican School
Board Journal, 192, 13.
Darden, E. C. (2009). Support staff and the law. American School Board
Journal, 196, 32-33.
Dea rdorff, P., Glasenapp, G., Schalock, M., & Udell, Tom. (2007). TAPS:
An innovative professional development program for paraeducators
working in early childhood special education. Rural Special Edu-
cation Quarterly, 26, 3-15.
Defries, M. (2010). Teachers “misunderstand” how to use support staff.
URL (last checked 4 February 2 0 10)
http://www.nurseryworld.co.uk/news/981161/Teachers-misunderstan
d-use-support-staff
DeVecchi, C., & Martyn R. (2010) An exploration of the features of
effective collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants in
secondary schools. Support for Learning, 25, 91-99.
French, N. K. (1999). Paraeducators and teachers: Shifting roles. Tea-
ching Exceptional Chi ldren, 32, 69-73.
French, N. K. (2001). Supervising paraeducators: A survey of teacher
practices. Journal of Special Education, 35, 41-53.
French, N. (2003). Managing paraeducators in your school: How to
hire, train, and supervise non-certified staff. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.
Gallagher, P. A., Cynthia, O. V., & Monda-Amaya, L. (2008). Percep-
tions of collaboration: A content analysis of student journals. Tea-
cher Education and Special Education, 31, 12-20.
doi:10.1177/088840640803100102
Ghere, G., & York-Barr, J. (2007). Paraprofessional turnover and reten-
tion in inclusive programs: Hidden costs and promising practices.
Remedial and Special Education , 28, 21-32.
doi:10.1177/07419325070280010301
Giangreco, M. F. (2003). Working with paraeducators. Educational
Leadership, 61, 50-53.
Giangreco, M. F., & Doyle, M. B. (2007). Teacher assistants in inclu-
sive schools. In L. Florian (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of special
education (pp. 429-439). London: Sage.
doi:10.4135/9781848607989.n33
Giangreco, M. F., Doyle, M. B., & Suter, J. C. (2011). Constructively
responding to requests for paraprofessionals: We keep asking the
wrong questions. URL (last checked 11 June 2012).
http://rse.sagepub.com
Giangreco, M. F., & Broer, S. M. (2007). School-based screening to
determine overreliance on paraeducators. Focus on Autism and Other
Developmental Disabilities, 22, 149-158.
doi:10.1177/10883576070220030201
Gursky, D. (2002). Recruiting minority teachers. Education Digest, 67,
28.
Hauerwas, L. B., & Deborah P. G. (2008). Who are the interventionists?
Guidelines for paraeducators in RTI. Teaching Exceptional Children
Plus, 4, 1-13.
Hauge, J. M., & Babkie, A. M. (2006). Develop collaborative special edu-
cator-paraeducator tea ms: One para’s view. Intervention in S chool and
Clinic, 42, 51-53.
Hoffman, L. and Sable, J. (2006). Public elementary and secondary stu-
dents, staff, schools, and school districts: School year 2003-2004.
Washington DC: Na tional Center for Education Statistics.
Copyright © 2012 SciRe s .
326