Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 2012, 4, 451-459
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2012.47052 Published Online July 2012 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/jwarp)
Socio-Environmental Impact of Water Pollution on the
Mid-Canal (Meda Ela), Sri Lanka
K. B. S. N. Jinadasa1, S. K. I. Wijewardena2, Dong Qing Zhang3*, Richard M. Gersberg4,
C. S. Kalpage5, Soon Keat Tan3, Jing Yu an Wang3, Wun Jern Ng3
1Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
2Works Department, Kandy Municipal Council, Kandy, Sri Lanka
3Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore City, Singapore
4Graduate School of Public Health, San Diego State University, Hardy Tower Campanile, San Diego, USA
5Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Received April 10, 2012; revised May 4, 2012; accepted May 31, 2012
ABSTRACT
Unplanned urban population growth in developing countries such as Sri Lanka exert pressures on the sectors of water
supply, sewage disposal, waste management, and surface drainage in the cities as well as their surrounding areas. The
Mid-canal is considered the most polluted surface water body in the Kandy district of Sri Lanka and contributes sig-
nificantly to pollution of the Mahaweli River. Health problems in the nearby population may well be associated with
environmental degradation and related to deteriorated water quality. The overall objectives of this study were to identify
the socio-economic status of the community settled along the Meda Ela banks, and to examine the current water quality
status of the Meda Ela and possible impacts of the nearby residents on water quality. Additionally, we propose remedial
measures concerning wastewater and solid waste disposal to improve environmental conditions in this area.
Keywords: Meda Ela; Sri Lanka; Environment; Pollution; Water Quality
1. Introduction
One of the most important demographic trends in the
world today is urbanization, with particularly rapid
growth in developing countries which is believed to be
an important cause of the degradation of natural water
resources. In future decades, almost the entire population
growth in the world is likely to be in the urban popula-
tion, primarily in Asia [1]. With rural-urban migration, it
has been estimated that by the year 2025, approximately
fifty percent of the population will live in the growing
cities of less developed countries [2]. Unplanned urban
population growth exerts pressures on water resources,
and water pollution has emerged as one of the most cri-
tical environmental problems in Asia. Such growth has
major impacts on water supply, sewage disposal, waste
management, surface drainage, and can cause environ-
ment health problems.
Kandy is recognized as a world heritage city by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) on account of its long and ve-
nerable history and its many cultural treasures. A canal
(called Mid-canal or “Meda Ela”) originates from the
overflow sluice of the Kandy Lake, runs through the den-
sely populated city, and thereafter drains into the Maha-
weli, which is the largest river basin in Sri Lanka, drain-
ing about 16% (10,327 km2) of Sri Lanka’s land surface.
Urbanization and population growth in Kandy city has
rapidly increased in the volumes of wastewater generated
in the region to about 20,000 m3·day–1 [3]. Since there is
no proper wastewater disposal system, untreated dome-
stic sewage is released directly into the Mid-canal [4].
In addition, Mid-canal receives wastewaters from small
scale industries such as commercial laundries, textile
dyeing operations, various workshops, a hospital, the city’s
main slaughterhouse, and miscellaneous dischargers such
as petroleum and other oily waste from motor vehicle
workshops. Furthermore, since the canal is topographi-
cally situated at a low elevation, a large number of side
canals drain into the Mid-canal with their heavy pollu-
tant loads. In addition, large water volumes from Kandy
Lake spill over to the Mid-canal, especially during the
rainy season. Therefore, polluted water in the Mid-canal
is a potentially health hazard not only to the people living
nearby, but also to persons the communities downstream.
Previous studies reported on some of the socio-
economic implications of water pollution in the Meda
Ela catchment and found that the awareness on water
*Corresponding author.
C
opyright © 2012 SciRes. JWARP

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 452
pollution issues of the community that lived next to the
Mid-canal was high, although “discharge of gray water
as well as black water by people who live close to the
canal was evident” [3]. However, to date, there has been
no comprehensive socio-economic survey on the urban
population living adjacent to the Mid-canal. The overall
objectives of this study were to: 1) identify the socio-
economic status of the community settled along the Mid-
canal banks; 2) identify the current water quality status of
the Mid-canal and possible impacts of the community on
water quality; and 3) propose remedial measures con-
cerning wastewater and solid waste disposal to improve
environmental conditions in this area.
2. Materials and Methods
Figure 1 shows a map of the study area. Mid-canal
begins from Kandy Lake (on the top right hand corner of
Figure 1) and flows through the city with a 5 km stretch
running parallel to the William Gopallawa road. The con-
fluence with Mahaweli River is at Getembe (on the bo-
ttom left hand corner of Figure 1).
2.1. Socio-Environmental Survey
The target group for the socio-environmental survey
were the residents living along the canal bank of the
Mid-canal. Nearly 350 houses are located along the canal
bank. A questionnaire survey was conducted in Oct of
2010 with the help of Mid-canal community organiza-
tions and postgraduates from University of Peradeniya,
Sri Lanka, through interviews with the 67 households. In
addition, 15 businesses, commercial and public establish-
ments were surveyed to collect necessary data for the
identification of major types of pollutants. The open area
of Mid-canal was divided into 5 segments according to
topography and population density. Three focused group
discussions and key information interviews were condu-
cted to collect socio-economic information. The data were
Figure 1. Route of the Mid-canal (Meda Ela).
analyzed using MS Excel and SPSS statistical program-
mes.
2.2. Maintaining the Integrity of the
Specifications
The template is used to format your paper and style the
text. All margins, column widths, line spaces, and text
fonts are prescribed; please do not alter them. You may
note peculiarities. For example, the head margin in this
template measures proportionately more than is custom-
ary. This measurement and others are deliberate, using
specifications that anticipate your paper as one part of the
entire journals, and not as an independent document.
Please do not revise any of the current designations.
A water quality assessment was carried out at 11
locations along the Mid-canal to analyse 16 physical,
chemical and biological parameters for both the wet and
dry seasons. Additionally, the 11 selected locations in-
cluded five wastewater point sources—Kandy hospital,
Peradeniya hospital, Kandy new courts complex, Kandy
suduhumpola slaughter house, and Kandy hospital pri-
vate laundry. These were considered to encompass the
significant point sources in this region. Sampling was
conducted at approximately equal distances along the
length of the canal. Table 1 shows 11 sampling locations
along the Mid-canal.
Effluent samples were collected on the same day and
at the same time, and were refrigerated (4˚C) and trans-
ported to the laboratory. Temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen (DO) and electrical conductivity (EC) were mea-
sured using a Multi-Parameter Digital Meter (HACH-
HQ40d, USA) on site. Turbidity was measured using a
ESD-800 Digital Nephlometric Turbidity Meter. Total
suspended solids (TSS) were determined gravimetrically
using Standard Methods [5]. In addition, the samples
were immediately analyzed to determine the concentra-
tion of the parameters: COD, BOD5, ammonia-N (4
NH

-
N), nitrate (3
NO

-N), and total phosphorus (TP). These
conventional parameters were analyzed colorimetrically
using a spectrophotometer (HACH-DR3800, USA) in
accordance with standard methods [5]. Faecal coliform
densities were determined by the membrane filtration
technique [5] using a Millipore type HA 0.45 μm pore
size membrane filter and enumerated on M-FC medium.
This test was carried out within 24 hours of sampling.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Socio-Environmental Survey
The survey indicated that urban population along the
Mid-canal has steadily increased over the past few years
and has produced a rapid increase in the volumes of
wastewater generated. The total population of Kandy
District was 1,279,028 and the urbanisation rate is 2.5%

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 453
Table 1. Sampling locations along the Mid-canal.
Location—Along Mid-canal Point sourcesDistance from the Mid-canal
starting point (km)
1 Outlet of the Kandy Lake 0.00
2 Atupattiya (The point it reappears through a tunnel close to Mallika Studio) 0.50
3 Goods shed (The point it goes underground close to Goods shed Bus stand) 0.80
4* Hospital treatment Plant effluent—I √ 1.90
5* Wastewater from cloth washing tanks √ 1.95
6 Upstream to Suduhumpola Junction 2.00
7* Slaughter house effluent √ 2.20
8 Downstream to Heeressagala Junction 3.25
9* Effluent of court complex √ 4.30
10* Hospital treatment plant effluent—II √ 5.25
11 End of Mid-canal 5.30
per annum [3]. Our survey showed that Sinhalese and
Muslims comprise about 48% and 45%, respectively of
the population along the Meda Ela. The majority of peo-
ple are at a medium income level for Sri Lanka and the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita was estimated
to be approximately US $2400. The survey revealed that
there is a direct relationship between income and the
quantum of wastewater generated (i.e., increasing as in-
come increases). The education level is relatively good
and 94% of the respondents in the sample had taken for
the Ordinary Level Examination. Results of a Spear-
man’s correlation analysis showed that there is a signifi-
cant correlation (p < 0.01) between education and legal
awareness of waste disposal into water bodies.
Figure 2 shows the sources of drinking water and the
types of bathing & washing waters used along the Mid-
canal. Approximately 87% of people have pipes con-
nected for potable water to their houses. However, some
of residents still use unprotected wells on the canal bank
for domestic purpose. Average family size was five and
average consumption of water per family was 995
L·day–1. About 91% of the families surveyed used piped
water for bathing and washing and only 4% of the people
use common bathing places. However, survey results
also showed quite clearly that residents did not use water
from the Mid-canal for their drinking, bathing or washing
purposes.
The survey also revealed that either most households
along the Mid-canal dispose of their sewerage directly
into the Mid-canal or else there is no well-maintained
effective wastewater disposal mechanism. Figure 3 shows
wastewater and municipal solid waste disposal. Accord-
ing to the survey, the average amount of wastewater ge-
nerated by a family was approximately 798 L·day–1. Ap-
proximately 64% of generated wastewater is discharged
directly into the Mid-canal, and a secondary method of
wastewater disposal is soakage pits (29% of generated
wastewater) that are used to infiltrate septic tank effluent
into the surrounding soil and enable surrounding soil to
treat the effluent before entering the ground water table
or water body. Wastewater from sources such as open
drainage channels, pipe lines, and covered drains were
also discharged to the Mid-canal. The survey also indi-
cated that a majority (91%) of the households surveyed
had toilet facilities and 9% used common toilets. The
Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) esti-
mated that approximately 1000 m3·day–1 of sewerage or
blackwater flows into Meda Ela [6].
With respect to municipal solid waste disposal, nearly
100 tonnes·day–1 of solid waste is generated within
Kandy city [7] and average household solid waste gene-
ration was 1.5 kg·day–1 [3]. The previous study also con-
cluded that waste generation pattern could be related to
the income levels and consumption patterns of the people
[3]. Our survey indicated that 71% of the Mid-canal
community disposed of their waste in municipal waste
bins or collecting carts, but 29% of them disposed of
their waste into the Mid-canal (Figure 3). The survey
also revealed that even some people who reside outside
the Meda Ela catchment also dispose of solid waste into
the canal. In contrast, the residents who live near the ca-
nal oppose dumping the solid waste into the canal since
these wastes block the water course and create problems
for them.
3.2. Water Quality Assessment along the
Mid-Canal
Overall, results of the water quality assessment showed
an obvious increase in the water quality deterioration
towards the end of the Mid-canal (Tables 2-5). The wa-
ter quality analysis indicated the pollution level during
the wet season was high. The increased levels of several
parameters (e.g., colour, turbidity, BOD5, COD, 4
NH

-

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 454
Pipe borne
water
87%
Common
ersupply
9%
ter
wat
Groundwa
3%
Surfacewater
0% Oth er
1%
Drinking water sources
O wn
bathroom
92%
W ell
3%
O ther
1%
Distribution of bathing and w
c ommon
bathing place
4%
M id-canal
0%
ashing water
Figure 2. Drinking wate r sources and distribution of bathing and washing water.
Med
64
Soakage
pit
12%
Open
channel
12%
Pipeline
7%
Covered
drain
5%
Wastewater disposal
a Ela
%
Municipal
71%
M eda El a
29%
Solid waste disposal
Figure 3. Wastewater and municipal solid waste disposal.
Table 2. Water quality variation along the canal (physical parameter).
Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Wet 240 328 316 572 350 325 200 234 380 367 300
EC
(µS·cm–1) Dry 276 378 370 691 604 429 - 330 579 320 317
Wet 22 76 68 230 1620 108 858 207 87 339 135
Colour
(PtCo) Dry 75 69 95 375 1655 85 - 41 40 42 92
Wet 4.3 10.1 12.7 16.2 97.6 16.5 892 37.5 4.3 40.2 55
Turbidity
(NTU) Dry 3.8 5 1.4 14.3 84.5 4 - 0.5 2.4 2.1 3.3
Wet 48 108 40 36 122 91 3073 122 91 584 273
TSS
(mg·L–1) Dry 94 106 123 198 532 148 - 49 27 32 145
Table 3. Water quality variation along the canal (organic matter).
Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Wet 5.14 4.24 3.47 1.18 3.80 3.50 3.43 3.68 4.49 5.05 2.00
DO
(mg·L–1) Dry 5.34 3.67 3.89 2.29 3.81 1.37 - 4.24 3.97 2.7 3.15
Wet 4.83 15.5 3.96 62 430 8.7 2646 37 4.26 407 111
BOD5
(mg·L–1) Dry 1.5 27 44 70.5 520 29 - 23 27 88 44
Wet 5 17 4 88 600 10 2766 46 8 610 153
COD
(mg·L–1) Dry 19 32 52 81 741 32 - 28 68 104 56
Table 4. Water quality variation along the canal (coliforms: count 100 mL–1).
Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Wet 144 300 300 6500 1000 400 3600 300 40 300 500
Total
coliform Dry 200 400 300 4200 800 500 - 300 200 5800 800
Wet 58 100 100 5400 200 200 2500 100 0 200 200
Faecal
coliform Dry 100 200 200 3400 200 300 - 100 0 4700 400

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 455
Table 5. Water quality variation along the canal (nitrogen and phosphorus).
Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Wet 1.8 1 1.4 0.5 0.7 1.9 3.6 1.8 4.3 43 27.7
3
NO 
3
4
PO 
(mg·L–1) Dry 2.5 1.6 0.7 28.7 1.6 0.6 - 1.5 2.8 17 14
Wet 3.9 2.6 4.7 5.1 2.3 5.2 7.1 5.4 4.7 47.3 39.6
NH4+
(mg·L–1) Dry 3.9 2.8 6.4 26 2.6 5.9 - 8.7 3.1 19.4 16.9
Wet 0.4 0.3 0.7 3.2 0.6 0.9 4.1 1.7 0.4 9 5.1
(mg·L–1) Dry 0.5 0.2 0.5 7.5 0.4 2.1 - 1.9 0.4 7 3.4
Wet 0.2 0.1 0.3 2.5 0.3 0.4 3.6 0.6 0.1 7.1 2.9
TP
(mg·L–1) Dry 0.2 0.1 0.2 2.5 0.1 0.6 - 0.6 0.1 4.9 1.1
N and phosphorus) in downstream segments of the Mid-
canal indicated the likelihood of deteriorating water
quality in wet weather (Figure 4).
In this study, the pH values varied in the range 6.6 -
7.2 and water temperature was around 25˚C - 26˚C dur-
ing the study period (not presented in the table). For
electrical conductivity (EC), the highest EC value (430
µS·cm–1) along the canal was at Suduhumpola junction
(Figure 4(a)) in the dry season. The EC would likely
have originated from the upstream Kandy Hospital be-
cause of laundry effluents which comprise of high load
of sodium ion [8]. Table 2 shows the level of colour wet
up markedly in wet weather. One of the main reasons for
higher level of colour during rain could be that some
factories or cottage industries discharge their waste into
the Mid-canal during rainy days. As for turbidity (as well
as colour), both parameters increased at the downstream
end of the canal also during the wet season. All the sam-
ple points showed the turbidity above the standard during
the wet season (Figure 4(c)) and most of the sample
points exceed the Ambient Water Quality Standards for
Inland Waters in Sri Lanka: 50 NTU (Table 2).
Dissolved oxygen (DO) was low at the end of the ca-
nal, especially in the wet season (Figure 4(e)). Previous
studies had reported the DO concentration was 5.78 and
2.68 mg·L–1 at the lake-outlet and end of the canal, re-
spectively [9]. That study also reported DO values were
6.03 and 5.40 mg·L–1 at 50 m upstream and 50 m down-
stream of the confluence with the Mid-canal. In the pre-
sent study, DO levels were 3.15 mg·L–1 in dry season and
2.00 mg·L–1 in wet season just before the confluence of
the Mahaweli River.
BOD5 and COD concentrations increased towards the
end of the Mid-canal (Figures 4(f) and 4(g)) and the
change was larger at the last few hundred metres before
the confluence of the Mahaweli River. The BOD5 and
COD values were 111 and 153 mg·L–1 in the wet season
at the end of the canal (Table 3), which are 3 - 5 fold
higher than the effluent BOD5 discharge limit (30 mg·L–1)
in Sri Lanka. The main sources are the Kandy and Pera-
deniya hospitals, along with the toilet discharges from
the Mid-canal residences. Other substantial BOD5 and
COD sources are the slaughter house and hospital laun-
dry. An earlier water quality analysis programme had
been conducted in March 2001 under the Greater Kandy
Water Supply Augmentation Project showed BOD5 to be
from 0.7 to 7.6 mg·L–1 at 500 m downstream of the con-
fluence of the Mid-canal with the Mahaweli River [6]. A
subsequent study was conducted via the Kandy City
Wastewater Management Project [10] and a higher BOD5
ranging from 2.13 to 10.5 mg·L–1 was noted. Compared
to previous investigation, the concentration of BOD5 that
we measured of 111 mg·L–1 suggests a progressively de-
teriorating water quality along the Mid-canal since 2005.
In the present study, the faecal and total coliform levels
varied from 58 and 144 MPN per 100 mL to 400 and 800
MPN per 100 mL, respectively in dry and wet weather
(Table 4). The total coliform values near the hospital
discharge point were very high, at 5800 and 4200 per 100
ml for wet and dry weather respectively (Figures 4(l)
and 4(m)).
(4
NH

-N) concentrations were also relatively high in
the wet season (Figure 4(j)). No fish were observed in
the canal. 4
NH

-N levels were extremely elevated at down-
stream site 11 showing levels of 16.9 mg·L–1 during dry
weather and 39.6 mg·L–1 during wet weather. Table 5
also presents nitrate (3
NO

-N) concentrations in the Mid-
canal, which can be largely attributed to biogenic waste
such as human and animal excreta as well as subsequent
nitrification. Nitrification will occur at dissolved oxygen
levels as low as 0.3 mg·L–1 [11], and since it exerts an
oxygen demand and can potentially result in some of the
oxygen depletion that we observed.
Phosphorus is commonly the limiting factor in fresh-
water bodies in Sri Lanka [6]. The concentrations of total
phosphorus and dissolved phosphate were high espe-
cially towards the end of the canal (Table 5). This sug-
gested substantial contamination from human, animal
excreta and organic waste discharged not only into the
canal but also into Kandy Lake. Phytoplankton in Kandy

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 456
0123456
200
250
300
350
400
450
Distance from O rigin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Season
(a)
0123456
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
COD (mg/l)
Distance from origin (km )
Wet Season
Dry Season(g)
0123456
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Turbidity (NTU)
D istance from O rigin (km )
Wet S eason
Dry Season
(c)
0123
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
456
TSS (mg/l)
Distance from Origin (km)
Wet S eason
Dry Season(d)
0123
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
456
BOD (mg/l)
D istance from origin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Season(f)
01234
0
50
100
150
200
56
Color (PtC o)
Distance from O rigin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Season
0123456
1
2
3
4
5
6
(b )
DO (mg/l)
Distance from origin (km )
Wet Season
D ry Season(e)

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 457
0123456
0
1
2
3
4
5
4
Distance from Origin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Seas on(h)
0123
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
45
TP (mg/L)
Distance from Origin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Se ason
(i)
PO
3–
(mg/L)
4
0123
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
456
NO3
--N (mg/L)
Distance from Origin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Season(k)
0123456
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
NH4
+-N (mg/L)
Distance from Origin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Season(j)
012345
6
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Faecal Colifor m (C ou nt /100ml)
Ditance from Origin (km)
Wet S e a s o n
Dry Season(m)
0123456
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Total Coliform (Count /100ml)
Ditance from Origin (km)
Wet Season
Dry Season(l)
Figure 4. Water quality variations along the Mid-canal.
Lake, an urban and manmade water body, was examined
for two consecutive years to determine species abun-
dance and composition, and the lake was categorized as
eutrophic due to nutrient discharge [12].
Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is recog-
nized as a human right [13] and provision of clean water
and safe disposal of wastewater should remain a basic
necessity for daily survival and for all economic activi-
ties. Access to adequate sanitation and sewerage systems
in the Kandy urban area, as well as access to appropriate

K. B. S. N. JINADASA ET AL. 458
on-site sanitation facilities for those not connected to a
sewerage system, is a long-term strategy for the Kandy
Municipal Council. In order to address this strategy,
there is a need to develop wastewater treatment facilities
for Kandy city and the Mid-canal catchment. JICA has
funded the Kandy City Wastewater Management Project
(KCWMP), which covers the Mid-canal catchment in
their centralised wastewater treatment project and it shall
be commissioned by 2016. This project is aimed at re-
ducing the current adverse impact on the Mid-canal
catchment due to wastewater discharges. The technolo-
gical appropriateness, economic viability, social accep-
tance, political feasibility and the overall sustainability of
the project shall be subject to scrutiny in the future.
There is no doubt that with the continuing urban
sprawl along Mid-canal, the provision of adequate levels
of drinking water and safe disposal of wastewater shall
become increasingly complex and expensive. This then is
an increasing challenge in coming years and implies that
large financial investments will be required for the water
sector in this area. As a matter of fact, centralized waste-
water management is a very costly part of infrastructure
and its elaborate systems of pipes, pumps and treatment
plants, as well as its institutional and managerial require-
ments are unaffordable in many of developing countries
[14]. Decentralized wastewater treatment is not a new
technology and was in the past decades prevailing in ru-
ral areas worldwide. Nowadays the concept of decentral-
ized wastewater management is far beyond traditional
thinking and solution. It focuses not only on commu-
nity-based wastewater collection, treatment, disposal, but
also on rainwater harvesting, groundwater protection and
surface water conservation. Raw material flow, energy
generation and resource management can also be inte-
grated into new decentralized water approach. Decen-
tralized technological alternatives like (a combination of
appropriately constructed) individual septic tanks inte-
grated with constructed wetlands at the mini/micro wa-
tershed level and managed by community-based institu-
tions [15] may be a viable alternative in the Kandy city
area.
4. Conclusions
Urban water bodies are susceptible to high anthropogenic
pressures and water quality conditions attributes are in-
fluenced by hygienic and economic conditions of the
riparian communities. Management of these water bodies
have been largely neglected in developing countries due
possibly to inadequate environmental awareness and fi-
nancial constrains. Mid-canal is a typical example of
such a water body. Flowing through a densely populated
area in the second largest city in Sri Lanka, it receives a
variety of untreated effluents from point and non point
sources. Urban water bodies like the Mid-canal have lost
their aesthetic value and have instead gradually become
seen by the community as a nuisance and health hazard.
This water quality analysis along Mid-canal indicated
the pollution level in the wet season was high. Dissolved
oxygen was low at the end of the canal and especially so
in wet season. Total suspended solids values had ex-
ceeded the discharge limits at all locations along the ca-
nal. The concentration of BOD5 and COD increased to-
wards the end of the Mid-canal, and the highest BOD5
values were much higher than the effluent BOD5 dis
charge limit in Sri Lanka. Ammonia concentrations were
above the inhibitory limit for fish and no fish were ob-
served in the canal. Total phosphorus and phosphate
concentrations were high towards the end of the canal.
The results highlighted the need to generate awareness
on protecting the environment and developing proper
practices of wastewater and solid waste disposal to re-
duce nutrient levels in the canal water. Promoting waste
reduction, reuse, recycling and final disposal in an envi-
ronmentally sound manner are recommended from this
study. Decentralized technological alternatives may be a
vital, sustainable and cost-effective alternative. In addi-
tion to wastewater treatment and sanitation, systematic
approaches and integrated remedial measures within the
urban development sector have to be taken to develop a
sustainable socio-environmental improvement plan to
mitigate pollution in the Mid-canal of Sri Lanka.
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[2] P. Jayakody, L. Raschid-Sally, S. A. K. Abeywardana and
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