J. C. CARTER
ever, social role expectations were a more plausible explanation
that accounted for gender differences in most studies (Yukl,
1998). The emphasis on gender differences, some argue, has
been used to exclude women from secular and non secular lead-
ership positions (Cheung, 1997; Stelter, 2002).
Gender and Transformational and
Transactional Leadership Styles
Transformational and transactional behaviors are also associ-
ated with leadership style studies. The transformational (a.k.a.
charismatic) leaders are those who articulate a vision of the
future and share it with peers and followers (Bass, 1998; Burns,
1978; Judge & Bono, 2000; Lowe et al., 1996). The emphasis
of this model is the connection between leader and follower as
it relates to organizational development (Bass, 1985). These
leaders regard leadership as a social process and partnership
(Alimo-Metcalf, 2010). They are also risk takers who attempt
to reshape and create new opportunities for employee involve-
ment (Bass, 1985; Lowe et al., 1996). In addition, they intel-
lectually stimulate followers and pay attention to individual
differences and seek new and creative ways to solve problems.
Transactional leaders tend to operate within an existing sys-
tem by maintaining status quo and avoid taking risks (Bass,
1985; Lowe et al., 1996; Madzar, 2001). An effective transact-
tional leader is able to work in a stable predictable environment
(Lowe et al., 1996) and is good at negotiating deals for com-
pliance and satisfactory performance (Burns, 1978).
Researchers have found that women exhibit more transfor-
mational leadership qualities such as establishing a vision,
finding creative ways of problem solving, and developing fol-
lower’s leadership skills (Bass & Avolio, 1994). In Eagly and
Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) analysis and women and men’s
leadership style they found women rated slightly higher on
three of the transformational leadership scales. Men were found
to be higher in transactional leadership scales.
In terms of church leaders and leadership style, Ukeritis
(1993) found “that church leaders were rated more consistently
as transformational leaders than transactional leaders” (p. 168).
Additionally, they explained this in linking “transformational
leadership qualities such as charisma and intellectual stimula-
tion as consistent with the values of religious life” (p. 168). The
female leaders operated more democratically, collaboratively,
and participatively. In addition, women found innovative ways
to accomplish goals and objectives (Wallace, 1992). Results
showed that women used a collaborative leadership style and
fostered a sense of community.
Summary
As the research cited indicates, traits’ impact on the way that
women and men lead is inconclusive. However, in both secular
and non secular leadership style studies women exhibit more
transformational leadership style qualities than men. More em-
pirical evidence is necessary to validate the assumption that
effective female and male clergy lead differently.
Method
Pastors were recruited for the study via referral and online
church directories and they were contacted by telephone, elec-
tronic mail, and mail. Of the full-time pastors who participated
in the study, 13 were female and 80 were male. The mean age
of females was 49 years, and males, 50 years. Pastors submitted
names and contact information of congregants and/or staff
members who could serve as raters. There were a total of 124
raters. Sixty six percent of the raters were female and 34% were
male. The average for the age of participants was 51 years.
Measures
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was used
to measure leadership style. It assesses three dimensions of
transformational leadership style: Charismatic Leadership, In-
dividual Consideration, and Intellectual Stimulation. The MLQ
also assesses transactional leadership style: Contingent Re ward
and Man agement by Exception.
The NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO FFI). Developed by
Costa and McCrae (1992), it is a 60-item questionnaire that op-
erationalizes the five major dimensions of personality seen in
the Five-Factor Model (FFM) (NEO FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1992).
Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Con-
scientiousness.
The PLES was designe d by the author. The 23-item pool items
were answered on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Results
Descriptive statistics on all variables are presented in Table
1. Participating female and male pastors scored high in extra-
version and agreeableness (T-scores > 55) and average in neu-
roticism, and conscientiousness (T-scores between 45 - 55).
Female pastors scored high in openness (T-scores > 55).
In Table 1, observer rated MLQ transformational leadership
scores (idealized influence attributed, idealized influence be-
havior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, indi-
vidual consideration) were above normative means for these
scales established by Bass and Avolio (1995). The normative
means for idealized influence attributed, idealized influence
behavior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individual consideration were 2.56, 2.64, 2.64, 2.51, and 2.26
respectively. Observer rated transactional leadership scores
were above the mean in contingent reward and below the mean
in management by exception active and management by excep-
tion passive, as established by Bass and Avolio (1995). The
normative means for contingent reward, management by excep-
tion active, and management by exceptionpassive are 2.20, 1.75,
and 1.11, respectively. In Table 2 Combined observer-rated
transformational idealized influence attributed and behavior,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individual
consideration scores revealed positive moderate correlations
with observer ratings in the PLES. Additionally, a positive mo-
derate correlation with contingent reward was also noted.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine differences in fe-
male and male pastors’ personality and leadership style as it
relates to pastoral leader effectiveness. Female pastors Open-
ness mean scores were slightly higher than male pastors. Indi-
viduals high in Openness are characterized as being more will-
ing to entertain novel ideas and interests and open to new ex-
periences, such as new ideas, emotions, actions, and creative
thought (Callister, 1999). Leaders high in Openness can also be
described as intelligent, original, imaginative, broad interests,
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