Steps to the clinic with ELF EMF

doi:10.4236/ns.2009.13020

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Vol.1, No.3, 157-165 (2009)

doi:10.4236/ns.2009.13020

SciRes

Natural Science

Steps to the clinic with ELF EMF

Ash Madkan1*, Martin Blank2, Edward Elson3, Kuo-Chen Chou4, Matthew S. Geddis5, Reba

Goodman1

1Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, USA

2Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, USA

3Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College Park, University of Maryland, MD, USA

4Gordon Life Science Institute, San Diego, California, USA

5Department of Science, Borough of Manhattan Community College-CUNY, New York, NY

Received 10 October 2009; revised 25 October 2009; accepted 27 October 2009.

ABSTRACT

There have been many models to identify and

analyze low-frequency motions in protein and

DNA molecules. It has been successfully used

to simulate various low-frequency collective

motions in protein and DNA molecules. Low-

frequency motions in biomacromolecules origi-

nate from two common and intrinsic character-

istics; i.e., they contain 1) a series of weak

bonds, such as hydrogen bonds, and 2) a sub-

stantial mass distributed over the region of

these weak bonds. Many biological functions

and dynamic mechanisms, including coopera-

tive effects have been reported. In this regard,

some phenomenological theories were estab-

lished. However, differences in experimental

outcomes are expected since many factors

could influence the outcome of experiments in

EMF research. Any effect of EMF has to depend

on the energy absorbed by a biological organ-

ism and on how the energy is delivered in space

and time. Frequency, intensity, exposure dura-

tion, and the number of exposure episodes can

affect the response, and these factors can inter-

act with each other to produce different effects.

In addition, in order to understand the biologi-

cal consequence of EMF exposure, one must

know whether the effect is cumulative, whether

compensatory responses result, and when ho-

meostasis will break down. Such findings will

have great potential for use in translation medi-

cine at the clinical level without being invasive.

Keywords: Electromagnetic Fields; Hsp70;

Interaction Mechanisms; Low-Frequency Collective

Motion

1. INTRODUCTION

Current investigations primarily focus on electromag-

netic fields as electropollutants, e.g. cell phones, with

slight regard to therapy. Electro-pollutants are manifestly

different in field strength and frequency in comparison

to therapeutic applications, yet the FDA fails to address

differences in design, implementation and field strength,

thereby considering them the same and lists therapeutic

devices as ‘‘potentially dangerous’’ by association. The

World Health Organization convened scientists from

around the world and determined that field strengths less

than 20,000 Gauss, which is lower in intensity than mag-

netic resonance imaging, MRI, are free of adverse side

effects [1].

Regardless of device design, EMF technology has

been shown to be clinically effective in bone healing

[2-4], wound repair [2,5] and neural regeneration [5-10].

In terms of clinical application, EMF-induction of ele-

vated levels of hsp70, a stress response protein, also

confers protection against hypoxia [11], aids myocardial

function and survival [12] as well as survival following

ischemia reperfusion [12-14]. Given these results, we are

particularly interested in the translational significance of

effect vs. efficacy. This relationship is generally not in-

vestigated nor reported. More precise description of EM

pulse, field strength intensity and sine wave parameters

will provide consistency and scientific basis in reporting

findings. It is contended that pulsed therapeutic fields

are usually more effective if less than 20 Gauss and fre-

quencies are less than 300 Hz, below which they are

referred to as extremely low frequency (ELF) [15-18].

Cell phones are several magnitudes of order larger in

both considerations. Most therapeutic ELF-EMF used

for wound healing and bone repair use field strengths as

small as 50 milliGauss. MRI, a diagnostic EM technol-

ogy, employs static fields from 15,000 to 50,000 Gauss

coupled to radiowaves for tissue penetration. In terms of

molecular effects, concern might be expressed for repeti-

tive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), an EM

treatment for mental illness employing extremely low

frequencies (ELF) combined with field strengths of sev-

A. Madkan et al. / Natural Science 1 (2009) 157-165

158

eral thousand Gauss.

This review does not extend to the remainder of the

electromagnetic spectrum (radiofrequency, microwave

or infrared spectrum) though much work on the employ-

ment of these forms of energy in the treatment of neo-

plastic disease is currently under investigation. This re-

search has now been employed as adjunctive therapy in

clinical oncology, e.g. microwave hyperthermia. The

radiofrequency and microwave parts of the spectrum are

used by inserting bulk energy, whereas the ELF-EMF

region is useful by producing electro-mechanical effects

on target tissues, producing specific biochemical reac-

tions.

2. THE PROMISE OF ELF-EMF IN

TREATING CANCER

Since the 1980s a considerable number of reports have

appeared [17,19-22] describing a great variety of cell

culture systems, animal models (mice for the most part),

field sources producing a variety of waveforms and field

strengths, and great variation in exposure protocols.

Many of the invitro (cell culture) studies of tumor-cell

lines report significant cell-killing compared to control

cultures. The studies involving transplantation of tumor

lines into mice, frequently subcutaneously into the ab-

domen, report that magnetic field exposures significantly

reduce the size of transplanted tumors (i.e. cyto-reduc-

tion) compared to controls. Although it is difficult to

compare studies quantitatively, it is interesting that cyto-

reduction occurs across a whole variety of field streng-

ths, wave-forms, pulsed fields versus sinusoidal fields,

and exposure durations. The great challenge for investi-

gators will be to find an optimal exposure regime which

delivers the most efficient cancer-cell-killing with the

most minimal side-effects, to establish the role of ELF-

EMF, whether as adjunctive or primary therapy, to relate

its efficacy to different kinds of cancer and to the stage

and grade of human cancer. This process has not actually

begun but some information from animal studies is al-

ready providing some direction [23-24].

A few studies have been chosen to illuminate the

value of the information they are reporting with regard

to guidelines for human investigations not yet begun. It

should be pointed out that although China and Russia

have reported success in ELF-EMF treatments in human

subjects with cancer, documentation is often weak and

validation by Western science has not occurred. We can

crudely separate the studies into those employing

“weak” magnetic fields, not exceeding tens of micro-

Tesla and those employing “strong” fields, above one

milliTesla and ranging through 100 milliTesla and even

up to several Tesla. This is indeed crude because other

parameters of the fields, such as waveforms, time and

spatial rate of variation of the fields are also critically

important. For reference, the geomagnetic field is about

50 microTesla. Some house-hold appliances produce up

to 1 milliTesla at a distance of 30 cm from the body, but

usually for short periods. A more prolonged exposure is

one to an electric blanket (60 Hertz) in which fields at

the surface run from 2 to 5 microTesla [25]. These am-

bient exposures are considered safe.

One study of extremely low frequency (ELF) pulsed-

gradient magnetic fields inhibited malignant tumor

growth through different biological mechanisms [83]

using a pulsed-gradient magnetic field (0.6-2.0 Tesla,

gradient of 10-100 T/meter, pulse width of 20-200 milli-

seconds, frequency of 0.16-1.34 Hz) to exposed sarco-

mas inoculated into the legs of mice. These normally

rapidly growing tumors showed significant shrinkage

with exposure as compared with a control group. Endo-

thelial cells of tumor blood vessels were swollen and

appeared occluded and morphologic observation and

biochemical tests revealed marked programmed cell

death (apoptosis). Necropsy revealed no abnormalities in

normal tissues.

Another study [26] exposed mice with implanted mur-

ine 16/C mammary adenocarcinoma cells to a rectified,

60 Hertz magnetic field for 10 minutes per day at 10,15

and 20 milliTesla for 12 consecutive days after a seven

day period in which the cells produce visible tumors.

Exposure to the fields significantly reduced tumor

growth. On microscopic examination the tumor exhib-

ited marked necrosis and evidence of inhibition of tumor

vascularization. Necropsy revealed no abnormalities in

the remainder of normal tissues.

De Seze et.al., [27] used a 0.8 Hertz square wave 100

mT, 8 hours/day or until death on mice subjected to

chemically induced tumor using benzo(a)pyrene. A sig-

nificant decrease in tumor growth and increase in sur-

vival were observed.

Cameron, et. al. [28] transplanted a human breast can-

cer cell line into athymic nude mice and compared the

effects of a rectified 60 Hz magnetic field signal at 15

milliTesla to that of radiation, 200 cGy of radiation

every other day and found significant cyto-reduction in

radiation and ELF-EMF exposed mice to a roughly

comparable extent. Mice that received either therapy

also had significantly fewer lung metastatic sites than

did untreated mice. Normal tissues were unaffected. This

study raised the question of whether ELF-EMF expo-

sures could achieve the same efficacy as radiation but

without the side effects of radiation.

Although electromagnetic technology was originally

described by Maxwell in 1865, electromagnetic tech-

nology as therapy received little interest from basic sci-

entists or clinicians until the 1980s. It now includes ap-

plications such as mitigation of inflammation (electro-

chemistry) and stimulation of several specific of genes

[15,16]. Studies on DNA have provided an understand-

ing of cell response to low energy EMF inputs via elec-

A. Madkan et al. / Natural Science 1 (2009) 157-165

159

tromagnetically responsive elements (EMRE; EMF-

sensitive base pairs nCTCTn) [19,20,29,30,84].

3. SELECTING MODEL SYSTEM FOR

TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH AND

ITS CLINICAL POTENTIAL

Of under rated importance in investigating ELF EMF

reactions, is the model system on which experiments are

based. When extrapolating preclinical testing results to

the intended clinical setting, it is important to recognize

and appreciate both the relevant attributes and the limi-

tations of a selected animal. It is essential to select a

model system that will help provide an understanding of

the interaction mechanism and provide specific markers

for studying the effect of EMF on many diseases/ condi-

tions including regeneration; ischemia-reperfusion, and

tumor suppression. Such model systems include tissue

cultured cells, Platyhelminths (worms), yeast, Diptera

(flies), bacteria, fish and mice.

4. CURRENT THEORIES ON ELF-EMF

INTERACTION MECHANISM

We confine the current discussion to studies of frequen-

cies below 0.3 kHz (commonly defined as the upper

limit of ELF) to magnetic fields with sinusoidal wave-

shapes, studies with simultaneous static magnetic fields,

and studies using pulsed magnetic fields. In the many

studies reported since the 1980s a variety of different

exposure protocols, with variation in such parameters as

magnetic field strength, frequency, duration of exposure

and combined modality applications with chemotherapy

and/or radiation, have been reported. Many studies have

not been replicated, a general weakness of the field. But

the studies taken as a whole still confer great potential

promise on the role of magnetic field therapy, either as

adjunctive therapy (i.e. in addition to chemotherapy or

ionizing radiation) or even potentially as a primary

(stand-alone) therapy for certain neoplastic diseases.

4.1. Basic Mechanisms Underlying the

Efficacy of Elf-Emf Treatments.

Enough is known about the cellular and molecular me-

chanisms of interactions of ELF-EMF to furnish a ra-

tional basis for employing such a therapeutic modality.

We describe several mechanisms for which there is some

documentation and a few proposed models, not verified,

which we believe are worth further investigation.

One strongly documented mechanism is the activation

of apoptosis, a process characterized as programmed cell

death. In response to many different stimuli, a series of

biochemical cascades are activated within a cell which

results in its death. From a teleological aspect such a

process constitutes a defense of the organism as a whole,

as a damaged cell can undergo the unregulated prolifera-

tion (lack of apoptosis) we regard as a cancerous trans-

formation. Under the microscope such cells can show

fragmentation of nuclei, bizarre appearances of nuclear

chromatin, membrane blebs and cell shrinkage. Bioche-

mically one observes the activation of a family of cys-

teine proteases called caspases which destroy structural

elements of the cell [21]. Caspases are activated by the

BCl-2 family of proteins which cause the release of cy-

tochrome c from mitochondria into the cytoplasm by

altering the mitochondrial membrane potential. Cyto-

chrome c is considered one of the major factors in acti-

vating the caspase cascade. It has been proposed [4] that

ELF-EMF can intervene in this process by affecting

voltage-dependent anion channels which are used in the

BCl-2 activation process. Other processes have also been

described as causing increased intra-cytoplasmic cal-

cium through voltage-activated channels as well [31].

One must bear in mind that the broad picture is far more

complex, as there is a related literature showing that

ELF-EMF fields also play a role in cell proliferation.

Such an effect is generally associated with the weak

fields, 10 microTesla to a few hundred microTesla, as

opposed to higher strength fields, greater than one mil-

liTesla, which can produce cell injury and apoptosis. It

has also been reported that a static field combined with

an ELF field increases apoptosis [31].

A second mechanism which has been reported from

several studies is an effect of ELF-EMF which produces

inhibition of new blood vessel formation. This is most

dramatically observed in histological sections of tumors

exposed to ELF-EMF. Malignant tumors normally ela-

borate angiogenic factors which cause neo-vasculari-

zation of the growing tumor, a proliferation of thin-

walled capillaries branching through the tumor mass to

provide nutrients to the tumor cells. The endothelial cells

which form buds to new vessels from existing vessels

appear to be inhibited during and following ELF-EMF

exposure, a process which most likely plays a role in

tumor cell death.

A few theoretical models have received much discus-

sion over the years. One is the ion cyclotron resonance

(ICR) model of McLeod and Liboff [32]. In this model

free ions move in a cell membrane in a combined static

and ELF magnetic field of the correct “cyclotron” fre-

quency. This motion is thought to trigger cell signals and

disrupt normal cell behavior. Another theory is that of

Lednev [33] and describes the interaction of magnetic

fields with ions bound to channel proteins which influ-

ence the opening and closing of the channels.

A variety of stimulative [4] effects from ELF-EMF

have been found, as opposed to strong field effects de-

scribed as destructive. Utilizing primarily cell culture,

A. Madkan et al. / Natural Science 1 (2009) 157-165

160

time-varying magnetic fields, sinusoidal or pulsed, with

frequencies in the extremely low frequency (ELF range),

or repetition rates on the order of 1 to 10 Hz, have been

shown to produce up-regulation of early response genes

and stress response genes [4], transcription in several

different cell lines [16] induction of stress response

genes [34], induction of DNA synthesis in fibroblasts

[32] induction of DNA synthesis in frog erythrocytes [35]

and alterations in the mitotic cycle of sea urchin em-

bryos [36]. The literature has been reviewed [25].

The model of gene regulation was believed to be that

the negatively charged DNA was tightly wrapped up in

the nucleus with positively charged histones, and that

most genes were ‘turned off’ most of the time. Of course,

different regions of the DNA code re being read more or

less all the time to replenish essential proteins.

The ability of relatively weak EMF (in the ELF fre-

quency range) to affect movement of electrons has been

demonstrated in several specific biological reactions that

are fundamental to cellular mechanisms; Na, K-ATPase

reaction, the oxidation of cytochrome oxidase, and the

oxidation of malonic acid (the Belousov-Zhabotinsky

reaction) reviewed in [3,4]. Thus, the same fields can

cause electrons to move in DNA, leading to areas of

local charging and local deaggregation of DNA strands.

This would set in motion the biosynthesis associated

with the stresses.

This protective mechanism induces the expression of

stress response genes and refolds damaged proteins to

transport them across cell membranes. Specific DNA

sequences on the promoter of the HSP70 stress gene are

responsive to EMF, and studies with model biochemical

systems suggest that EMF could interact directly with

electrons in DNA. The sensitive base pairs are upstream

on the HSP70 promoter and consist of the nCTCTn con-

sensus sequence. When the EMRE are tranfected into a

reporter gene, which was previously unresponsive to ele-

ctromagnetic fields, they become sensitive. Studies have

shown that the ERK 1-2 protein is phosphorylted when

exposed to electromagnetic radiation (8 mT). A related

model is that of Elson [27] which, like the model of

Blank and Goodman, describes a direct electro-mecha-

nical interaction of ELF-EMF with DNA. These theories

have benefited from the results of a number of studies on

the ability of DNA to conduct electric currents along the

DNA backbone [38]. The phenomenon of DNA conduc-

tivity has been demonstrated in vitro using photo-

chemical techniques and direct measurements of current

flow through DNA strands using nano-techniques [39].

The phenomenon has not been demonstrated in vivo, but

it has been speculated that the motion of charges in DNA

could serve to protect DNA from oxidative damage. The

model advocated by Elson suggests that charge motion

through helical pathways could also serve to open DNA

strands, producing origin sites for DNA replication. This

model also indicates how very strong magnetic fields

could damage DNA, which would send the signal for the

induction of apoptosis. This might constitute yet another

mechanism for the treatment of tumors. The model may

offer an explanation for the finding of DNA strand

breaks produced by electromagnetic fields as reported in

a few studies [40-42].

A final mechanism first described by Dr. K. C. Chou

and subsequently elaborated by both Dr. Chou and Dr.

Glen Gordon [43,44] is the concept of low-frequency

phonons (or internal motion) in proteins. Dr. Chou re-

ported this mechanism in order to solve a perplexing

“free-energy deficit” problem [45], which was encoun-

tered in studying the binding interaction between insulin

and the insulin receptor [46]. According to the inference

elaborated in [45], the wave numbers of the low-frequ-

ency phonons were in the range of 1

10100 cm





31

, cor-

responding to the range of terahertz frequency (to

Hz). In the mean time, the possible biological

functions of low-frequency phonons in proteins were

also discussed [45].

310

Subsequently, low-frequency modes have been indeed

observed by Raman spectroscopy for a number of protein

molecules [47,48] and different types of DNA [49-52].

These observed results have also been further confirmed

by the neutron scattering experiments [53].

To identify and analyze this kind of low-frequency

motion in protein and DNA molecules, the quasi-con-

tinuum model was developed [54-60]. It has been suc-

cessfully used to simulate various low-frequency collec-

tive motions in protein and DNA molecules, such as

accordion-like motion, pulsation or breathing motion, as

reflected by the fact that the low-frequency wave num-

bers thus derived were quite close to the experimental

observations [54-56,59,61]. It was also revealed through

the quasi-continuum model that the low-frequency mo-

tions in biomacromolecules originate from their two

common and intrinsic characteristics; i.e., they usually

contain 1) a series of weak bonds, such as hydrogen

bonds, and 2) a substantial mass distributed over the

region of these weak bonds [62].

The most interesting fact is that many marvelous bio-

logical functions and their profound dynamic mecha-

nisms, such as cooperative effects [60,63], allosteric

transition [64,65], and intercalation of drugs into DNA

[66,67], can be revealed through the low-frequency col-

lective motion or resonance in protein and DNA mole-

cules. In this regard, some phenomenological theories

[57,65,67,68] were established. Meanwhile, the solitary

wave motion was also used to address the internal mo-

tion during microtubule growth [69]. A soliton is a self-

reinforcing solitary wave (a wave packet or pulse) that

maintains its shape while it travels at constant speed.

The relationship between the solitons and the low-fre-

quency phonons in proteins have been discussed in a re-

A. Madkan et al. / Natural Science 1 (2009) 157-165

161

cent paper [70].

As stated on the web-page of Vermont Photonics Tech-

nologies Corp. at Vermont

(http://www.sov er.net/~bell/new Frontierp ics.h tm), “Study

of low-frequency (or Terahertz frequency) motions in

biomacromolecules holds a very exciting potential that

could lead to revolutionize biophysics, molecular bio-

logy, and biomedicine.”

For a systematic introduction of the low-frequency col-

lective motion in biomacromolecules and its biological

functions, refer to a comprehensive review article [71].

4.2. Concluding Remarks on Mechanism

Direct effects on electron (or hole) flow in DNA by the

models cited are not proven. It is, however, easy to visu-

alize how ELF-EMF could damage cellular processes

and structures with the documented mechanisms de-

scribed. A cell is an electrolyte rich, dipolar-protein-

filled water-dominated dielectric through which course

many lipid membranes filled with voltage-gated and

other types of channels designed for transmitting bio-

chemical signals. It is easy to visualize how such a sys-

tem could be affected by low frequency, strong time-

varying magnetic fields and their associated electric

fields, and so most attention has been focused on effects

on electrolyte flow, protein dipole responses, and signal

transduction at membranes. One interesting study used

pulsed electric fields (not magnetic fields), a burst of

high voltage, 40 kiloVolt/cm, 300 nanosecond wide

pulses to produce complete destruction of focal mela-

nomas injected subcutaneously into mice [72]. Because

electrodes must be placed on either side of the tumor

there are severe practical restrictions on the applicability

of such a technology to tumors in general, but such an

approach can yield valuable information on the strength

of the fields required to produce tumor destruction. The

general conception has been that it is the electrical fields,

not the magnetic fields per se that couple into biological

structures to produce an effect. Consequently the pulsed

electric field experiment can provide valuable informa-

tion on the magnetic field parameters required to pro-

duce an effective electric field.

One must be cognizant, however, that the studies and

models of Blank, Goodman, and Elson have raised the

possibility that coupling of electromagnetic energy can

occur as well directly through the magnetic fields. This

possibility can be explained by the expressions F = qv X

B and curl E = dB/dt of classical electromagnetism, and

remembering that a cell is filled with currents through

membranes virtually at all times and possibly currents

through DNA as well. The technology is available to

fashion waveforms with far faster rise-times, shorter

pulse-widths, far higher field strengths, varying repeti-

tion rates and burst modes than have been studied. In

view of the fact that no adverse side-effects have been

found and no abnormalities in normal tissue have been

identified to date (possibly a very significant advantage

over chemotherapy and conventional radiation) exciting

opportunities are visible.

In view of these many interesting possibilities, and the

promise communicated by the existing literature, a very

strong case can and should be made for an investment

into the potential of ELF-EMF in cancer therapeutics.

5. EMF-DNA INTERACTION

MECHANISMS: SIGNALING

PATHWAYS

The initial step in transmitting extracellular information

from the plasma membrane to the nucleus of the cell is

by NADH oxidase [73]. NADH then rapidly generates

reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS stimulate

matrix metalloproteinases which allows them to cleave

and release heparin binding epidermal growth factor.

This secreted factor actives the epidermal growth recep-

tor which in turn activates the ERK cascade [73].

The major mechanism that regulates transcriptional

activity in response to extracellular stimuli is the activa-

tion of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)

signaling cascades. There are three MAPK cascades that

are implicated in exposures to ELF and RF. They are: 1)

extracellular signal regulated kinase 1\2 (ERK), 2)

c-Jun-terminal kinase (JNK), stress actrivated protein

kinase (SAPK) and p38SAPK. Each of the cascades is

composed of three to six tiers of protein kinases and

their signals are transmitted by sequential phosphoryla-

tion and activation of the protein kinases in each of the

tiers. Upon activation the protein kinases in various tiers

phosphorylated and activated a large number of regula-

tory proteins which include a set of transcription factors,

e.g., c-Jun, c-Fos, hsp27 and hsp70. Activation of the

stress response is accompanied by activation of specific

signal transduction cascades involved in regulating cell

proliferation, differentiation and metabolism [74-77].

The MAPK pathways have been characterized in several

cell types [74,78-81]. Exposure to nonthermal EMF as

well as RF affects the expression of many cellular pro-

teins [73-75].

The initial step in transmitting extracellular informa-

tion from the plasma membrane to the nucleus of the cell

is by NADH oxidase [73]. NADH then rapidly generates

reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS stimulate

matrix metalloproteinnases which allows them to cleave

and release heparin binding epidermal growth factor.

This secreted factor activates the epidermal growth re-

ceptor which in turn activates the ERK cascade [73].

Both EMF and RF activate the upregulation of the

HSP70 gene and the induction of elevated levels of the

hsp70 protein. This effect on RNA transcription and

A. Madkan et al. / Natural Science 1 (2009) 157-165

162

protein stability is controlled by specific protein tran-

scription factors which are elements of the mitogen-acti-

vated-phospho-kinase (MAPK) cascade.

EMF also stimulate serum response factor which

binds to the serum response element (SRE) through

ERKmapk activation and is associated with injury and

repair in in vivo and in vitro. The SRE site is on the

promoter of an early response gene, c-fos, which under

specific cellular circumstances has oncogenic properties.

The c-fos promoter is EMF-sensitive; a 20 min exposure

to 60Hz 80mG sinusoidal fields significantly increased

c-fos gene expression [82]. The SRE accessory protein,

Elk-1, contains a growth-regulated transcriptional acti-

vation domain. ERK phosphorylation potentiates Elk-1

and transactivation at the c-fos SRE [8]. ELF-EMF ex-

posure may also control protein regulation through the

PI3-kinase pathway as inhibition results in an upregula-

tion of collagen in response to ELF-EMF, suggesting an

inhibitory role for PI3K in ELF-EMF induction. Fur-

thermore, the role of nitric oxide/ cGMP signaling path-

way has been implicated in pulsed EMF induced chon-

drocyte proliferation.

In studying human disorders, such as cancer, a strong-

er emphasis should be placed on model systems and

noninvasive techniques for patient safety and ease of

application for the treating physician. Information from

the laboratory bench on non-human model organisms is

under appreciated and very important.

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Literature Cited

Legend: To facilitate an understanding of mechanisms, defi-

nition of the following terms should be helpful.

Wave - A wave is a disturbance traveling through a medium

by which energy is transferred from one particle of the medium

to another without causing any permanent displacement of the

medium itself. The peaks of the wave are the maximum amount

of energy.

Longitudinal Wave - a longitudinal wave is like a sound wave in

air, where the pulse travels parallel to the direction of disturbance.

 Transverse Wave - a transverse wave is like a leaf

floating in a lake. When a wave comes, the leaf goes

up and then back down. So a transverse wave is

where the motion is perpendicular to the direction of

disturbance.

 Wavelength – A wavelength is the distance between

any two repeating points, as shown in the diagram.

 Rise Time: The speed with which a pulse goes from

zero to peak

 Measurement of field strength: Tesla/Gauss measure:

1 Tesla equals 10,000 gauss

 Frequency – The frequency of a wave is the number

of times a point repeats in a certain amount of time.

While EMF signals come in various shapes (sine and square,

pulsed etc.) through a sine wave or a series of sine waves.

The delivery system of an electromagnetic field can be single

pulse, repetive pulse and can be through Helmholtz and other

coil configureation.

To understand the impact of EMF on cells and tissues it is

important to understand specific acronyms. These include

pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF), time varying electro-

magnetic field (TVEMF) to pulsed electric stimulation (PES)

and pulsed electromagnetic therapy (PEMT). The need to spe-

cifically design pulse and/or static field for maximal bio-effi-

cacy.