Tremendous work and results of prognostic models were yielded in the field of global warming in the past three decades. In laser experiments with a XeCl-excimer laser, we photographed the ablation process and gas evaporation in form of a gas-bubble using ultrafast imaging. Analysing the results, we were able to detect an intrinsic independent emission saturation mechanism of global warming gases, which is most probably relevant for the stagnation of mean temperature in the atmosphere observed nowadays (r = 0.99). While the saturation of global warming gases depends on the revealed special relation between the logarithm of the total charge of the nucleus-electron system and the logarithm of the wavelength of absorbed rays, which is an important new finding, an increase in concentration of global warming gases upon a specific emission saturation level can create an imbalance leading to a stagnation of atmospheric temperature increase (emission saturation concentration of CO2 = 364.203119986 ppm). The formula which we calculated is able to accurately predict atmospheric warming and global climate changes.
Using the technique of ultra-fast imaging, the temporal development and spatial distribution of the laser ablation have been visualized by several groups [
The results of this study offer width and new understanding of the mechanism of the absorption/emission process in a global warming gas and explain how energy is emitted under irradiation or other general electro- magnetic conditions.
Thirty samples of tissue specimens were investigated using ultrafast imaging. Beside healthy tissue the arterial segments showed different types of atherosclerotic plaques, from lipid rich to hard calcified plaques. The fresh vessels were cut into a size of at least 2 cm × 2 cm and placed in a quartz cuvette containing a 0.9% saline solution.
A XeCl excimer laser (Lambda-Physik LPX 210ICC) with a wavelength of a 308 nm and a pulsed width of 30 ns (full width at half-maximum [FWHM]) was used for tissue ablation. The pulses were transmitted through a fixed 600 μm fused silica fiber with the fiber tip pointing perpendicular to the vascular surface. The energy at the dis- tal end of the fiber was adjusted with a variable attenuator. The pulse energy was set to 20 mJ, which corres- ponds to fluences of about 7 J/cm2 at the distal end of the fiber. The ablation threshold is about 1 - 4 J/cm2 [
Care was taken to photograph the ablation side without shadowing of adjacent segments. At increasing delay times with a step of 5 μs series of pictures were recorded from calcified and fatty plaques as well as from normal arteries. Since the repetition rate of the excimer laser pumped dye laser is much too low for high speed cinema- tography, only single pictures at certain delay times have been recorded for each ablating pulse. By means of a micro-manipulator, the fiber tip was fixed at a 0.5 mm distance to the sample. In direct contact to the tissue, a second fiber was adjusted. Each laser pulse was applied to different positions of the same plaque specimen. This was achieved by moving the samples via the micro-manipulator in steps of 800 μm.
We calculated the volume of the observed bubble assuming rotational symmetry based on the model of a sphere segment. All values are expressed as mean + SD, if not otherwise indicated. The deviation from a sphere was es- timated by averaging the difference between the volume of a spherical segment completely enclosing a bubble and the volume of a spherical segment completely included in the same bubble. Bubbles with an estimated error > 10% of the calculated volume were excluded from this analysis. The maximal bubble volume from atheroscle- rotic plaques, fatty and normal vessels was compared by using an unpaired t-test. p values < 0.05 were regarded as significant.
Thirty aortic specimens were irradiated using an excimer laser [
Assuming rotational symmetry and using the simple model of a spherical segment, the volume V of the ob- served bubble can be described according to:
where r is the radius and h the height of the spherical segment. The expansion of the calculated volume was dif- ferent for normal tissue and calcified plaques resulting in different slopes of the figured curves. For the later type of tissue a considerably steeper increase of the bubble volume was noted (p = 0.0001). The bubbles revealed a maximum after 40 - 50 µs in case of calcified plaques and after 50 - 70 µs after irradiation of normal arterial wall (
In direct contact of the laser tip to the tissue surface a bubble rises from the tissue after about 10 µs. This bub- ble has an irregular shape and, in comparison to non-contact tissue ablation, appears somewhat suppressed. A maximum is already reached at a delay time of 40 to 45 µs, the collapse is followed by an ejection of small par- ticles emerging from the irradiated area.
The revealed volume velocities in the increasing phase were related to those of the decreasing phase in 720 photographs according the calculated relation [
Series of photographs taken from normal tissue at different delay times with the experimental setup shown above (distance between fiber tip and the tissue surface: 0.5 mm). The distal end of the fiber appears as a trans- parent bar pointing from the top in each photograph. The irregular horizontal contour in front of the illuminated background is the lateral view of the tissue surface. The ablation process is figured as an increasing bubble appearing as a shadow. Delay times a) 0 μs; b) 2 μs; c) 20 μs; d) 40 μs; e) 60 μs; f) 100 μs
. Time course of the calculated bubble volume for thirty samples with calcified and fatty plaques and for normal aortic wall
Tissue samples | |||
---|---|---|---|
Calcified | Fatty | Normal | |
Accuracy (mm3) | 0.004 ± 0.07 | 0.06 ± 0.08 | 0.04 ± 0.05 |
Delay time at the maximal volume (μs) | 40 - 50 | 30 - 55 | 50 - 70 |
Maximal volume (mm3) | 1.31 ± 0.43 | 0.34 ± 0.11 | 0.32 ± 0.25 |
Lifetime (μs) | 130 - 160 | 100 - 120 | 100 - 140 |
Volume increase after rise (cm3/s) | 30.2 ± 9.2 | 11.4 ± 4.9 | 5.4 ± 1.9 |
Using ultra-fast imaging a cavitation bubble, which increased upon the tissue surface under saline solution, could be photographed, which collapsed after an increase of approximately 153 microseconds. In these bubbles certainly a great amount of carbon dioxide can be found. But what happens during the bubble expands and when does the absorption/emission process takes place? Beside medical aspects of laser irradiation on the radiated tissue, which were reported in the journal Lasers in Surgery and Medicine [
whereas the for emission “needed” energy of a photon was calculated as:
σ = 1/te,
log(q2/λ2) or logλ2 and logq2, n is the number of molecules contained in the reference volume and π is the num- ber of the orbital of the electron. There is a fixed relation between the absorption energy and the activation of the electron on the one hand and the for emission needed energy and the emission of a photon on the other hand, since the relative energy changes of the emission of a photon are equal to that of the activation of an electron (in order to maintain the energy equality in a system). Equating the two Formulas (1) and (2), we revealed a special relation that implies that the product of the logarithm of the square wavelength and the logarithm of the square electric charge are equal to their sum:
since a1 is equal to a2. Hence, when the energy changes of the “needed” energy is below the power of the lost binding energy of the nucleus, a photon can be easily generated. However, additional emission con not occur any more, when the power of the (for emission) needed energy is greater than this binding energy, in order to allow energy maintenance. Therefore, the temperature of the gas does not increase any more, even if the gas will be further warmed (missing thermalisation due to the emission saturation).
Whereas in the increasing phase parts of the absorption process for infra-red rays take place, in the collapsing phase emission of generated infra-red rays predominates. Analyzing the bubble volumes (30 series of photo- graphs) we could reveal, that the increasing phase of the bubble extension and the collapsing phase were accor- dingly related to each other in regard of their logarithmic part of the volume change in time, their product being equal (mean difference 0.004; r = 0.99) to the sum of the two positive values, a fact, which significantly con- firms the relation calculated in Formula (4) and the hypothesis of emission saturation upon a saturation point. Therefore, the results show that the saturation of the CO2-gas in these experiments depends on the calculated re- lation (4), whereas the amount of emission is guarded and limited by this energy management way, which is an important new finding.
In the atmosphere, the same process of balancing, which happens in microseconds after laser irradiation seems to lead under certain circumstances to a stagnation of mean temperature. But how can than the temperature in- crease furthermore, like it is known for the actual climate changes? The emission out of spectral areas, which emits only slightly or does not emit at all, or which emits from the side corner of the absorption for infrared rad- iation, is well known [
The anthropogenic emission of CO2 could lead to an increase of the temperature of 1.5˚C to 2.0˚C till the end of the 21 century [
Caused by the revealed emission saturation mechanism the CO2 molecules—and this is the good news—have lost their explosive stuff 1998 and the temperature is not increasing furthermore. The stagnating global tempera- tures from the past 16 years are an indication of the accuracy of these calculations. This stagnation is thus most likely a result of emission saturation of global warming gases such as CO2, rather than by cool ocean currents in the Pacific related cooling, as reported by scientists from the United States in the journal Science. Thus, due to this effect the global mean temperature on earth will not rise any more, provided that the methane and nitrous oxide levels are not increasing significantly (these gases are not saturated in the atmosphere and can thus addi- tionally heat the atmosphere).
The sun activity (De-Vries cycles) with a consecutive decrease of the cloud density, may play a significant role for global warming. This is in our opinion only relevant for unsaturated atmospheric gases like methane, NO2 and FCKW, since a more of warming radiation upon the saturation point cannot warm the atmosphere any fur- ther. The effect of the solar activity on global warming is subject of many controversial debates. Whereas some climate researchers (H. Svensmarc, H. Malberg) consider this effect (over the past 200 years) as statistically sig- nificant [
The global warming gases absorb the infrared radiation up to 98.5%, which is radiated by the earth surface in the specific wavelengths. This shows that CO2 can absorb a great amount of infrared radiation. The process, which does not warm the global warming gases further after reaching a certain temperature, occurs under laboratory conditions abrupt and not gradually, like one would expect in case of absorption saturation. The missing therma- lisation is in our opinion caused by emission saturation and only in the second line by an absorption saturation, which relies on a totally different principle. The absorption of CO2 can be described as
Diagram of the volume changes of the photographed bubble in time, with a) laser ablation of normal specimen; b) ablation of fatty and c) ablation of calcified specimen. The increasing phase of the laser ablation in c) reveals a constant 30.2 cm3/s velocity of increase, whereas the collapsing phase owns an also constant 13.0 cm3/s velocity
(Nm is the number of molecules in 1 l air, Q is the charge of the nucleus-electron-system in the CO2 gas, q is the total electric charge). This is, however, the measured concentration of CO2 in the year 1998, since the year 1998 the mean temperature did, however, not show any further increase. Some scientists claimed that the mean earth temperature is not constant but has slowly increased in the last 16 years, but this perception has not been vali- dated. The majority of climate experts assume that no further increase in mean temperature took place in the last 15 - 16 years. The accuracy of this value and the other calculations are therefore extremely high. This high ac- curacy is also due to the high correlation coefficient of 0.99 calculated for the 720 assessed and photographed bubble volumes, which significantly fit with the theoretically calculated Formula (4), confirming the described hypothesis of the emission saturation process of CO2 molecules.
These described experiments performed to establish the underlying process associated with laser ablation on human tissue could reveal in a totally different field unexpected important findings concerning the saturation mechanism of global warming gases. While these results could be very important for climate changes, detailed evaluation for their impact on global warming would also require (i) calculation of the impact on spectral emissivity of the supposed mechanism, (ii) radiative transfer calculations to determine the impact of (i) on time- varying radiative forcing and (iii) simulation of the impact of (ii) on transient climatic change, which have not been assessed in the present study. Moreover, whether the assessed saturation mechanism can be extrapolated from a laser-induced gas vaporization with the formation of a gas bubble to atmospheric conditions remains unclear. Further studies are therefore needed to determine the impact of these results on atmospheric warming. The future and the further course of the mean temperature on earth will show, whether our measurements and calculations are accurate and whether they might be the underlying cause for the actual stagnation of mean temperature at constant levels.