The energy efficiency design of the exterior wall in the buildings of the hot summer and cold winter zone of China should consider the heat prevention in summer and the heat insulation in winter. The self-insulation of the exterior wall is a more feasible design to satisfy the energy efficiency of buildings in the zone. However, the systematic research is urgently needed for the self-insulation of the exterior wall in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China. The paper tested the thermal performance of the common non-clay materials such as shale sintered hollow brick, sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, etc. by means of indoor experiments. The energy efficiency effect of the common materials was verified using dynamic calculation soft PKPM and several constitutions of exterior wall with different main bricks and insulation materials on the heat bridge were simulated, too. Besides, the tests of the thermal performance of exterior wall in real constructions were carried out to testify the practical effect of the recommended constitutions of exterior wall with different main bricks and insulation materials on the heat bridge. The conclusions are: the physical and thermal properties of the six non-clay wall material are better than the clay porous brick; the thermal performance of the non-clay brick can be improved obviously through the rational arrangement of the holes; shale sintered hollow brick after increasing the holes and rationalizing the hole arrangement and sand autoclaved aerated concrete block are recommended for buildings in the hot summer and cold winter area of China. The dynamic calculation results show that the thermal performance s of the non-clay materials are all satisfied with the energy efficiency; The heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall with composition ③ , in which the main wall was sand autoclaved aerated concrete block and the material on the heat bridge was sand autoclaved aerated concrete plate, is the smallest among the three recommended compositions.
Building envelops can protect people from wicked natural environment. Appropriate building walls configurations not only provide comfortable indoor environment, but also decrease building operation energy consumption. Commonly, the thermal performance of the exterior wall can be improved by adding insulation materials on the inside or outside of the wall, which is interior insulation or exterior insulation. However, many problems are found in the practice of the interior insulation or exterior insulation.
The problems of the interior insulation are: the wall always go mouldy or craze because of exterior zone of the wall cannot be protect by the insulation materials; the insulation system craze easily, too; the effective use space of the building is smaller after the insulation materials adding on the interior face of the wall; the insulation system could be destroyed when building are decorated secondly; the transformation of the interior insulation disturb the people living in the building.
The problems of the exterior insulation are: the cost is high and the construction process is difficult; the quality control and monitor is difficult; the insulation system craze easily because of exposed to the meteorological changes; the fire resistance performance is worse.
The exterior wall with self-insulation can avoid the problems of the interior and exterior insulation. Therefore, more and more practices are adopted the self-insulation wall in the buildings.
There are extensive researches on insulation location of building wall. Sonderegger [
Bojic et al. [
Kossecka and Kosny [
Zhu and Zhang [
Ning et al. [
Tsilingiris [
Ozel and Pihtili [
Yu et al. [
Ibrahim et al. [
Kolaitis et al. [
What can be seen from the above literatures is that the most researches are focus on the thermal performance of the wall with added insulation such as interior or exterior insulation. The self-insulation of the exterior wall is rarely studied in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China.
The hot summer and cold winter zone of China is a main climate zone of China. It is consisted of 16 provinces, cities and municipalities. The area of the zone is about 1,800,000 square kilometers and the population is about 55 millions. The energy efficiency design of the exterior wall in the buildings of the zone should consider the heat prevention in summer and the heat insulation in winter. Because of the serial problems found in the practical application of common insulation forms such as interior insulation and exterior insulation, another applicative insulation form of exterior wall should be put forward. The self-insulation of the exterior wall is a feasible design to satisfy the energy efficiency of buildings in the zone.
The self-insulation of the exterior wall is that the exterior wall is manufactured by insulation material, whose thermal conductivity is small. The thermal performance can satisfy the needs of the energy efficiency without added insulation on the exterior. However, the systematic research is urgently needed for the self-insulation of the exterior wall in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China.
The paper was aimed to test the thermal performance of the common materials using in the self-insulation of the exterior wall by means of indoor experiments. Besides, the energy efficiency effect of the common materials was verified using dynamic calculation soft PKPM and several constitutions of exterior wall with different main bricks and insulation materials on the heat bridge were simulated, too. Finally, the tests of the thermal performance of the exterior wall based on the real constructions were carried out to testify the practical effect of the recommended constitutions of exterior wall with different main bricks and insulation materials on the heat bridge.
According to the needs of building energy efficiency and wall materials innovation in the area of hot summer and cold winter of China, the main development direction of new wall, that is non-clay energy-saving wall basing on the local resources including industrial waste residues, urban river sludge, enterprise papermaking sludge recycling etc., is determined. The common non-clay wall materials are shale sintered hollow brick, sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, shale sintered porous brick, sintering gangue porous brick, sintering heat preservation brick, composite concrete porous brick, etc.
A series of experiment researches were conduct to test the thermal physical properties of the common non-clay wall materials and determine whether conform to the requirements of the heat preservation of wall materials in the codes. By comprehensive comparison, one or two kinds of insulation wall materials most suitable for the hot summer and cold winter area of China was selected.
The main test instruments were JW-I type (
The JW-II type temperature and heat flux auto detector is an intelligent data recording and analysis instrument, including 55 temperature detecting routes and 20 heat flux detecting routes. Besides, it can upload the data to the computer for analyzing. The dimension of WYP heat flux meter is 110 mm × 110 mm × 2.5 mm, the measuring probe coefficient is 11.6 w/(m2∙mv)(10 kcal//m2∙h∙mv), the measuring temperature range is below 100˚C and the measuring error is ≤5%. The temperature sensors for the experiments are Copper-Constantan thermocouples, whose temperature measuring range is −50˚C to 100˚C, resolution ratio is 0.1˚C and uncertainty is ≤+0.5˚C. Besides, the digital thermometer, whose resolution ratio is 0.1˚C, temperature measuring range is −50˚C to 199.9˚C and accuracy ratio is ≤+(0.3% + 1˚C), is also used in the experiments.
A testing wall, whose dimension is 1000 mm × 1000 mm and the thickness depending on the thickness of the test wall, was built in the test-specimen shelf of JW-I type test instrument. The thermal resistance and heat transfer coefficient of the test wall can be computed after the heat flux and the temperature of the wall were measured. Before experiment, every wall test-specimen was dried by warmer (
The thermal resistance and heat transfer coefficient of the test wall can be gained by the Equations (1) and (2) [
R = T 2 − T 1 E × C (1)
K = 1 R i + R + R e (2)
where, R is thermal resistance [(m2×K)/W], K is heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2×K)], T 2 is the temperature of the high temperature thermostat room [K], T 1 is the temperature of the low temperature thermostat room [K], E is the recording data of the heat flux meter [mV], C is the probe coefficient of the heat flux meter [W/(m2×mv)], R i is the surface thermal resistance of the interior face of the test wall [(m2×K)/W], R e is the surface thermal resistance of the exterior face of the test wall [(m2×K)/W].
All the experiments were conduct in the Building Physical Environment Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Testing Center of Zhejiang University. The both sides of all the test walls were wiped by 10 mm cement mortar, whose dry density is 1800 kg/m3 and thermal conductivity is 0.93 W/(m×K).
Firstly, four kinds of shale sintered hollow brick were measured, which have the character as shown in
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Specific heat [KJ/(kg∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|
① | 290 × 240* × 190 | 775 | 61.9 | 1.05 |
② | 290 × 240* × 90 | 887 | 50 | 1.05 |
③ | 290 × 190* × 190 | 814 | 57.4 | 1.05 |
④ | 290 × 190* × 90 | 947 | 49.1 | 1.05 |
The measuring results in
There are some methods to improve the thermal performance of the shale sintered hollow brick, such as increasing porosity, increasing the holes in the hollow brick, more reasonable hole arrangement, decreasing the hole wall thickness and filling the holes with thermal insulation material, etc. For further testing, the shale sintered hollow brick with dimension of 290 mm × 240 mm × 190 mm were filled with insulation material, that is expanded polystyrene panel (EPS), by different means, as shown in
The measuring results of different means of filling the holes with EPS are illustrated in
Besides, the shale sintered hollow brick after increasing the holes and rationalizing the hole arrangement (
The measuring results of the improved designing brick are shown in
The shale sintered hollow brick can be used abundantly in the wall without load on account of its good thermal performance.
Secondly, two kinds of sand autoclaved aerated concrete block were used to test the thermal performance. The measuring results are shown in
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 290 × 240* × 190 | 0.663 | 0.813 | 1.23 | 0.374 |
② | 290 × 240* × 90 | 0.640 | 0.790 | 1.27 | 0.389 |
③ | 290 × 190* × 190 | 0.559 | 0.709 | 1.41 | 0.354 |
④ | 290 × 190* × 90 | 0.520 | 0.670 | 1.49 | 0.382 |
Means | Apparent density [kg/m3] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 756 | 0.707 | 0.857 | 1.17 | 0.350 |
② | 781 | 0.862 | 1.012 | 0.99 | 0.286 |
③ | 787 | 1.110 | 1.260 | 0.79 | 0.220 |
④ | 791 | 1.146 | 1.296 | 0.77 | 0.214 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Specific heat [KJ/(kg∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|
① | 290 × 240* × 190 | 959 | 52 | 1.05 |
② | 290 × 240* × 90 | 801 | 60 | 1.05 |
③ | 290 × 240* × 190 | 852 | 50 | 1.05 |
Improved designing | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|
① | 0.696 | 0.846 | 1.18 | 0.356 |
② | 0.883 | 1.033 | 0.97 | 0.280 |
③ | 0.877 | 1.027 | 0.97 | 0.281 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 600 × 250 × 200* | 413 | 1.285 | 1.435 | 0.697 | 0.156 |
② | 600 × 250 × 200* | 563 | 1.064 | 1.214 | 0.824 | 0.188 |
Thirdly, the testing for two kinds of shale sintered porous brick (
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 115 × 90 | 1230 | 34.3 | 0.556 | 0.706 | 1.42 | 0.449 |
② | 240* × 240 × 115 | 887 | 45.7 | 0.553 | 0.683 | 1.46 | 0.470 |
Commonly, the thermal performance of the shale sintered porous brick can be enhanced by means of changing the shape to make it modular, reducing the thickness of the hole wall, filling the holes with insulation material and change the thermal conductivity of the raw material of the brick.
Two kinds of shale sintered porous brick after modularizing (
Besides, two kinds of shale sintered porous brick with insulation material in the raw material were also test. The kind ① was added sawdust and the kind ② was added sawdust and gangue (
When filling the holes of the shale sintered porous brick with EPS (expanded polystyrene panel), as shown in
Fourthly, three kinds of sintering gangue porous brick (
Fifthly, three kinds of sintering heat preservation brick (
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 190 × 90 | 1087 | 37.5 | 0.610 | 0.760 | 1.32 | 0.410 |
② | 190* × 190 × 90 | 1402 | 32.0 | 0.550 | 0.700 | 1.43 | 0.375 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 115 × 90 | 1041 | 33.5 | 0.774 | 0.924 | 1.08 | 0.320 |
② | 190* × 190 × 90 | 1216 | 33.5 | 0.709 | 0.859 | 1.16 | 0.285 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 240 × 115 | 1015 | 35.8 | 0.670 | 0.820 | 1.22 | 0.370 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 115 × 90 | 1209 | 32.9 | 0.569 | 0.719 | 1.39 | 0.438 |
② | 240* × 190 × 90 | 1223 | 33.4 | 0.610 | 0.760 | 1.32 | 0.410 |
③ | 240 × 190* × 90 | 1223 | 33.4 | 0.576 | 0.726 | 1.38 | 0.340 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 115 × 90 | 903 | 34.9 | 0.698 | 0.848 | 1.18 | 0.425 |
② | 240* × 115 × 90 | 1011 | 30.1 | 0.560 | 0.710 | 1.41 | 0.440 |
③ | 240* × 115 × 90 | 1022 | 27.7 | 0.600 | 0.750 | 1.34 | 0.510 |
Sixthly, three kinds of composite concrete porous brick with or without filling EPS (
The conclusions of the indoor experiment researches of thermal physical Six kinds of common non-clay wall materials, that are shale sintered hollow brick, sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, shale sintered porous brick, sintering gangue porous brick, sintering heat preservation brick and composite concrete porous brick were test in the indoor experiment researches of thermal physical. The thermal performance, after some improved measures were taken, was also analyzed comparatively. The conclusions are as follows.
The density and the thermal conductivity of the six non-clay wall material are all smaller than the density and the thermal conductivity of the clay porous brick, which is 1400 kg/m3 and 0.58 W/(m∙K), respectively. Besides, the porosity of the six non-clay wall material are all bigger than the porosity of the clay porous brick, which is about 30%. Therefore, the non-clay brick can be used as new wall material of energy efficient.
Commonly, the thermal performance of the non-clay brick can be improved obviously through the rational arrangement of the holes such as modularizing the holes, filling the holes with insulation material such as EPS and adding insulation material in the raw material. Think of filling the holes with EPS is not appropriate for mass production, rational arrangement of the holes and adding insulation material become the feasible means to improve the thermal performance further of the non-clay bricks.
Comparing comprehensively the results mentioned above, two materials, shale sintered hollow brick after increasing the holes and rationalizing the hole
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 240* × 240 × 90 | 1244 | 41.0 | 0.603 | 0.753 | 1.33 | 0.429 |
② | 240* × 240 × 90 | 1245 | 41.0 | 0.642 | 0.792 | 1.26 | 0.401 |
③ | 240* × 240 × 90 | 1247 | 41.0 | 0.699 | 0.849 | 1.18 | 0.366 |
arrangement (
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Porosity [%] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
② | 290 × 240* × 90 | 801 | 60 | 0.883 | 1.033 | 0.97 | 0.280 |
③ | 290 × 240* × 190 | 852 | 50 | 0.877 | 1.027 | 0.97 | 0.281 |
Numbers | Dimension [mm] | Density [kg/m3] | Thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Total thermal resistance [(m2∙K)/W] | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] | Equivalent thermal conductivity [W/(m∙K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
① | 600 × 250 × 200* | 413 | 1.285 | 1.435 | 0.697 | 0.156 |
② | 600 × 250 × 200* | 563 | 1.064 | 1.214 | 0.824 | 0.188 |
When the wall of a building adopts the insulation material, the thermal resistance of the wall can be improved obviously. However, the heat transfer through the column and girder, which are made of reinforced concrete commonly, is still big because of the heat conductivity of the column and girder is big. This is called heat bridge phenomenon. It is of vital importance to impede the heat transfer through the heat bridge for the sake of energy efficient of building. Usually, the heat transfer through the heat bridge can be reduced by painting insulation material such as insulation mortar. In order to analyze the energy consumption of the building using the non-clay brick mentioned above and insulation material on the heat bridge cooperatively, the dynamic calculations using PKPM, an energy consumption simulation tool developed by the China Academy of Building Research Shanghai Institute based on DOE-2, were carried out using the meteorological parameter of Hangzhou. On account of Hangzhou is a typical city of the hot summer and cold winter area of China, the conclusions can be applied to the most cities of the area.
The building model selected to dynamic simulate should be representative, so three kinds of common building forms in Hangzhou were employed. After some necessary simplification, which had little influence on thermal environment, the plans and the PKPM models of the three kinds of common building forms are present in
The envelops constitution of the building in the PKPM are shown in
City | Hangzhou, 30 degrees north latitude and 120 degrees east longitude | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Climate zone | Hot summer and cold winter | |||
Building type | Point block apartment | Stick block apartment | Office building | |
Orientation | South | South | South | |
Structure type | Frame | Frame | Frame | |
Floors | 15 | 6 | 7 | |
Floor height (mm) | 3000 | 3000 | 3750 | |
Shape coefficient | 0.21 | 0.23 | 0.16 | |
The area rate of window to wall | East | 0.30 | 0.21 | 0.05 |
South | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.36 | |
West | 0.30 | 0.05 | 0.05 | |
North | 0.30 | 0.34 | 0.36 | |
The area of air-conditioning (m2) | 7589.68 | 2755.17 | 9155.29 | |
The area of non-air-conditioning (m2) | 2354.22 | 1529.58 | 4842.14 |
Names | Constitution | Heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2∙K)] |
---|---|---|
Exterior wall | The main wall: 20mm cement mortar + 240 mm sand autoclaved aerated concrete block + 20 mm cement mortar Heat bridge: 5mm anti-crack mortar + 20 mm inorganic insulation mortar + 240 mm reinforced concrete + 20 mm cement mortar | 1.34 |
Interior wall | 20 mm cement mortar + 240 mm sand autoclaved aerated concrete block + 20 mm cement mortar | 0.78 |
Roof | 40 mm fine aggregate concrete + 20 mm cement mortar + 50 mm foam glass + 20 mm cement mortar + 30 mm light aggregate concrete + 120 mm reinforced concrete | 0.98 |
Ceiling | 20 mm cement mortar + 120 mm reinforced concrete | 2.92 |
Windows | 6 mm clear glass + 12 mm air + 6 mm clear glass | 3.4 |
Doors | Energy efficient doors | 2.77 |
had a base case respectively. We can analyze the energy consumption difference between the base case and the new case (as shown in
The indoor calculation parameters of two kinds of apartments were set according to the Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Residential Buildings of Zhejiang province of China. That is, the air-conditioning temperature of the bedroom and living room is 18˚C for winter and 26˚C for summer. The indoor ventilation coefficient is 1 rate/hour when the air-condition is operating. The indoor calculation parameters of the office building were set according to the Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Public Buildings of Zhejiang province of China. That is, the air-conditioning temperature of the general office is 20˚C for winter and 26˚C for summer, the air-conditioning temperature of the others room is 18˚C for winter and 26˚C for summer. The people density of the general office and the others of the office building is 4 m2/person and 5 m2/person respectively [
The energy consumption results of the three kinds of typical buildings and the base cases are shown in
Besides, the energy consumptions were calculated when replacing the sand autoclaved aerated concrete block of the exterior wall by other non-clay material
Energy type | Point block apartment | Stick block apartment | Office building | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
New case | Base case | New case | Base case | New case | Base case | |
Total cooling energy | 336,121 | 335,533 | 135,754 | 134,969 | 972,582 | 959,148 |
Cooling energy per building area | 33.80 | 33.74 | 31.68 | 31.50 | 69.48 | 68.52 |
Total heating energy | 217,020 | 229,597 | 93,165 | 97,725 | 483,755 | 514,465 |
Heating energy per building area | 21.82 | 23.09 | 21.74 | 22.81 | 34.56 | 36.75 |
Total energy | 553,141 | 565,130 | 228,919 | 232,694 | 1,456,337 | 1,473,613 |
Total energy per building area | 55.63 | 56.83 | 53.43 | 54.31 | 104.04 | 105.27 |
such as shale sintered hollow brick, shale sintered porous brick, sintering gangue porous brick and sintering heat preservation brick. The heat resistance of the different non-clay material wall is shown in
The heat transfer through the heat bridge in the building such as column, girder can be reduced by means of painting insulation material on the heat bridge. In view of the fireproofing requirement of building, the organic material such as EPS, polyurathamc and rubber polyphenyl granule is prohibited in the insulation exterior wall. Therefore, some inorganic materials such as inorganic insulation mortar, sand autoclaved aerated concrete plate, nanometer aerated concrete plate and foaming ceramic plate are used on the heat bridge of building. The compositions of different main insulation exterior wall with different insulation material on the heat bridge were:
① The main wall was sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, the material on the heat bridge was inorganic insulation mortar;
② The main wall was sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, the material on the heat bridge was nanometer aerated concrete plate;
③ The main wall was sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, the material on the heat bridge was sand autoclaved aerated concrete plate;
④ The main wall was sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, the material on the heat bridge was foaming ceramic plate;
⑤ The main wall was shale sintered hollow brick, the material on the heat bridge was inorganic insulation mortar.
Three kinds of typical building forms in Hangzhou were employed to carry out the dynamic simulation of the compositions of different main insulation wall with different insulation material on the heat bridge. After some necessary simplification, which had little influence on thermal environment, the plans and the
Wall numbers | The non-clay material | Heat resistance [(m2∙K)/W] |
---|---|---|
① | sand autoclaved aerated concrete block | 1.340 |
② | shale sintered hollow brick | 0.877 |
③ | shale sintered porous brick | 0.556 |
④ | sintering gangue porous brick | 0.569 |
⑤ | sintering heat preservation brick | 0.698 |
Wall numbers | Energy type | Point block apartment | Stick block apartment | Office building |
---|---|---|---|---|
① | Cooling energy | 33.80 | 31.68 | 69.48 |
Heating energy | 21.82 | 21.74 | 34.56 | |
Total energy | 55.62 | 53.42 | 104.04 | |
② | Cooling energy | 33.40 | 31.32 | 68.33 |
Heating energy | 31.73 | 20.16 | 39.88 | |
Total energy | 65.13 | 51.47 | 108.21 | |
③ | Cooling energy | 33.70 | 31.52 | 68.57 |
Heating energy | 32.44 | 20.17 | 42.04 | |
Total energy | 66.14 | 51.68 | 110.61 | |
④ | Cooling energy | 33.69 | 31.51 | 68.56 |
Heating energy | 32.42 | 20.18 | 41.93 | |
Total energy | 66.11 | 51.69 | 110.49 | |
⑤ | Cooling energy | 33.67 | 31.49 | 68.57 |
Heating energy | 32.39 | 20.19 | 41.57 | |
Total energy | 66.06 | 51.69 | 110.14 |
PKPM models of the three kinds of typical building forms are present in
The energy consumption results of the three kinds of typical buildings in Hangzhou are present in
In order to verify the energy efficiency effect of the three compositions of exterior wall mentioned above, the tests of real building were carried out in the Group A of Xixi New World of Hangzhou. The Group A of Xixi New World is consisted of eight buildings, in which A1 - A5 are office buildings with 5 floors
City | Hangzhou, 30 degrees north latitude and 120 degrees east longitude | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Climate zone | Hot summer and cold winter | |||
Building type | Apartment | Commercial building | Office building | |
Orientation | South | South | South | |
Structure type | Frame | Frame | Frame | |
Floors | 15 | 6 | 18 | |
Floor height (mm) | 3000 | 3600 | 3600 | |
Shape coefficient | 0.21 | 0.23 | 0.16 | |
The area rate of window to wall | East | 0.30 | 0.21 | 0.05 |
South | 0.35 | 0.34 | 0.36 | |
West | 0.30 | 0.05 | 0.05 | |
North | 0.30 | 0.34 | 0.36 | |
The area of air-conditioning (m2) | 7589.68 | 3349.40 | 12443.90 | |
The area of non-air-conditioning (m2) | 2354.22 | 782.46 | 5347.44 |
Building type | Exterior wall compositions | Cooling energy | Heating energy | Total energy |
---|---|---|---|---|
Apartment | ① | 33.94 | 21.97 | 55.91 |
② | 33.93 | 21.96 | 55.88 | |
③ | 33.92 | 21.99 | 55.91 | |
④ | 33.94 | 21.98 | 55.92 | |
⑤ | 33.91 | 22.23 | 56.14 | |
Commercial building | ① | 112.93 | 23.94 | 136.42 |
② | 112.95 | 23.52 | 136.47 | |
③ | 112.98 | 23.57 | 136.55 | |
④ | 113.12 | 23.61 | 136.73 | |
⑤ | 113.30 | 23.49 | 136.79 | |
Office building | ① | 73.52 | 31.49 | 105.01 |
② | 73.51 | 31.59 | 105.10 | |
③ | 73.49 | 32.02 | 105.51 | |
④ | 73.51 | 31.74 | 105.25 | |
⑤ | 73.80 | 32.48 | 106.28 |
and the total area is 9091 m2, A6 is a supermarket building with 4 floors and the total area is 10,744.5 m2, A7 is a commercial building with 5 floors and the total area is 1855.7 m2, A8 is a hotel building with 8 floors and the total area is 9169.46 m2. The 5 office buildings were test and the exterior wall of the building A1, A2 and A5 are composition ①, building A3 is composition ③, building A4 is composition ⑤.
The heat transfer coefficients of the exterior wall were measured by the heat flux meter, that is JW-II type temperature and heat flux auto detector. The others instruments were type MW-XQS-1821, an instrument used for testing the airtight of window and door, anemograph electric heater, voltage regulator, computer, hygrothermograph, etc. The parameters of the instruments were already illustrated in the part 2.
The thermal resistance of the exterior wall can be calculated using the Equation (1). The heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall is the reciprocal of the total heat resistance. Several points are test for an exterior wall in order to make the results more accurate. The average main heat resistance of the exterior wall can be calculated using the Equation (2) and the average heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall can be calculated using the Equation (3). The relative error of the heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall can be calculated using the Equation (4). The heat transfer coefficient of an exterior wall should be calculated using the Equation (5).
R t = R + R i + R e (1)
where, R t is the total heat resistance of the exterior wall; R = Δ T q is the main
heat resistance of the exterior wall, in which Δ T is the temperature difference measured by the heat flux meter and q is the measured heat flux; R i = 0.11 ( m 2 ⋅ K ) / W is the surface heat resistance of interior face of the exterior wall; R e = 0.04 ( m 2 ⋅ K ) / W is the surface heat resistance of exterior face of the exterior wall.
R = ∑ Δ T ∑ q (2)
where, ∑ Δ T is the temperature sum of the measuring points, ∑ q is the heat flux sum of the measuring points.
K c a = ∑ q ∑ Δ T + 0.15 ∑ q (3)
where, K c a is the average heat transfer coefficient of the measuring points of the exterior wall.
δ K K c a = ∑ δ q ∑ Δ T + ∑ δ ( Δ T ) ∑ q ( ∑ Δ T + 0.15 ∑ q ) ∑ q (4)
where, δ K is the relative error of the heat transfer coefficient, δ q is the relative error of the heat flux, δ ( Δ T ) is the relative error of the temperature difference.
K c = K c a ± δ K (5)
where, K c is final heat transfer coefficient of an exterior wall.
All the measures were carried out after the exterior wall had been constructed completely at least three months, which is the influence of the water in the wall could be ignored. The main exterior wall and the heat bridge were all test. The selection of the measuring points should be representative and unacted on the indirect sunlight outdoor. Besides, the measuring point of indoor air temperature was in the center of the room and 1.5 m away from the floor. The room should be airtight when the test was underway. The field testing photos are shown in
Firstly, the measuring points in the building A2, A3 and A4 are present in
Secondly, the testing results of the measuring points in the building A3 are shown in
Thirdly, the testing results of the measuring points in the building A4 are shown in
As we can see from the results above, the field testing results are all close to the theoretical results and the results of the indoor experiments in part 2. The heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall of the building A3, in which the composition ③ was employed, is the smallest among the three recommended composition of the exterior wall.
Parameters | Distribution room | Bathroom |
---|---|---|
The average temperature of the interior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 42.5 | 45.0 |
The average temperature of the exterior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 29.4 | 27.7 |
The average temperature difference between the interior and exterior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 13.1 | 17.3 |
The average heat flux of the testing wall [W/m2] | 25.36 | 14.89 |
The heat resistance R of the testing wall [(m2∙k)/W] | 0.517 | 1.162 |
The total heat resistance of the testing wall [(m2∙k)/W] | 0.667 | 1.312 |
The heat transfer coefficient of the testing wall [W/(m2∙k)] | 1.50 | 0.76 |
The heat transfer coefficient in theory [W/(m2∙k)] | 1.46 | 0.71 |
Parameters | Distribution room | Bathroom |
---|---|---|
The average temperature of the interior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 41.5 | 43.8 |
The average temperature of the exterior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 29.5 | 26.7 |
The average temperature difference between the interior and exterior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 12.0 | 17.1 |
The average heat flux of the testing wall [W/m2] | 21.81 | 13.96 |
The heat resistance R of the testing wall [(m2∙k)/W] | 0.550 | 1.225 |
The total heat resistance of the testing wall [(m2∙k)/W] | 0.700 | 1.375 |
The heat transfer coefficient of the testing wall [W/(m2∙k)] | 1.43 | 0.73 |
The heat transfer coefficient in theory [W/(m2∙k)] | 1.41 | 0.71 |
Parameters | Distribution room | Bathroom |
---|---|---|
The average temperature of the interior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 43.0 | 43.8 |
The average temperature of the exterior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 31.3 | 30.2 |
The average temperature difference between the interior and exterior surface of the testing wall [˚C] | 11.7 | 13.6 |
The average heat flux of the testing wall [W/m2] | 15.37 | 15.73 |
The heat resistance R of the testing wall [(m2∙k)/W] | 0.761 | 0.865 |
The total heat resistance Rt of the testing wall [(m2∙k)/W] | 0.911 | 1.015 |
The heat transfer coefficient of the testing wall [W/(m2∙k)] | 1.10 | 0.99 |
The heat transfer coefficient in theory [W/(m2∙k)] | 1.04 | 0.94 |
The hot summer and cold winter zone of China is a main climate zone of China. The energy efficiency design of the exterior wall in the buildings of the zone should consider the heat prevention in summer and the heat insulation in winter. Because of the serial problems found in the practical application of common insulation forms such as interior insulation and exterior insulation, the self-insulation of the exterior wall is a feasible design to satisfy the energy efficiency of buildings in the zone. However, the systematic research is urgently needed for the self-insulation of the exterior wall in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China.
Firstly, the thermal performance of the common materials using in the self-insulation of the exterior wall were test by means of indoor experiments. The common non-clay wall materials are shale sintered hollow brick, sand autoclaved aerated concrete block, shale sintered porous brick, sintering gangue porous brick, sintering heat preservation brick and composite concrete porous brick. The conclusions are as follows.
The density and the thermal conductivity of the six non-clay wall material are all smaller than the density and the thermal conductivity of the clay porous brick, which is 1400 kg/m3 and 0.58 W/(m∙K), respectively. Besides, the porosity of the six non-clay wall material are all bigger than the porosity of the clay porous brick, which is about 30%. Therefore, the non-clay brick can be used as new wall material of energy efficient.
Commonly, the thermal performance of the non-clay brick can be improved obviously through the rational arrangement of the holes such as modularizing the holes, filling the holes with insulation material such as EPS and adding insulation material in the raw material. Think of filling the holes with EPS is not appropriate for mass production, rational arrangement of the holes and adding insulation material become the feasible means to improve the thermal performance further of the non-clay bricks.
Comparing comprehensively the results mentioned above, two materials, shale sintered hollow brick after increasing the holes and rationalizing the hole arrangement and sand autoclaved aerated concrete block are recommended as the more proper material used in the insulation wall of building in the hot summer and cold winter area of China.
Secondly, the energy efficiency effect of the common materials was verified using dynamic calculation soft PKPM and several constitutions of exterior wall with different main bricks and insulation materials on the heat bridge were simulated, too. The conclusions are: the thermal performance of the non-clay materials are all satisfied with the energy efficiency because of the total energy consumption of the buildings using non-clay bricks are all smaller than the base cases; the total energy consumption is smaller if the heat resistance is bigger; from the simulated results and the economic benefit, three kinds of compositions of the exterior wall with different main wall materials and insulation materials on the heat bridge are recommended for the building exterior wall in the hot summer and cold winter zone of China.
Finally, the tests of the thermal performance of the exterior wall based on the real constructions were carried out to testify the practical effect of the recommended constitutions of exterior wall with different main bricks and insulation materials on the heat bridge. All the testing results are close to the theoretical results and the results of the indoor experiments in part 2. The heat transfer coefficient of the exterior wall with composition ③, in which the main wall was sand autoclaved aerated concrete block and the material on the heat bridge was sand autoclaved aerated concrete plate, is the smallest among the three recommended compositions.
The researches of the paper were entrusted by the Leading Group Office of Innovation Wall of Hangzhou, leaded by The Architectural Design and Research Institute of Zhejiang University Co, Ltd. The associate companies and institutes were Institute of Architectural Technology of Zhejiang University, Construction Group of Canhigh Co, Ltd, Zhejiang Kaiyuan Building Material Company and The Fourth Constructional Engineering Company of Hangzhou, etc.
Yu, H.F., Xu, Q.B., Zhang, S.M., Gao, W.J. and Xu, J.F. (2017) The Theoretically Studies and Field Testing of Self-Insulation Exterior Wall in the Hot Summer and Cold Winter Zone. Energy and Power Engineering, 9, 654-686. https://doi.org/10.4236/epe.2017.910043