The groundwater is widely used for irrigation of rice crops. The overuse of groundwater causes depletion of the water quality (i.e. enormous increase in conductivity, hardness and ion and metal contents, etc.) in several regions of the country and world. In this work, the quality of the groundwater in the densestrice cropping area, Saraipali, Chhattisgarh, Central India is discussed. The water is sodic in nature with extremely high electrical conductivity. The mean concentration (n = 30) of F -, Cl -, NO 3 -, SO 4 2-, NH 4 +, Na +, K +, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ and Fe in the water was 1.2 ± 0.2, 98 ± 31, 46 ± 15, 56 ± 9, 19 ± 4, 206 ± 25, 9.2 ± 2.3, 39 ± 6, 114 ± 19 and 1.7 ± 0.6 mg/L, respectively. The sources of the contaminants are apportioned by using the factor analysis model. The suitability of the groundwater for the drinking and irrigation purposes is assessed.
The urban groundwater has emerged as one of the world’s most challenging issues due to large users and contamination with chemicals of geogenic and anthropogenic origins [
Saraipali (21.33˚N 83.0˚E) is a block in Mahasamund district, Chhattisgarh state, India, including 299 town and villages inclusive of Saraipali town with population of ≈0.3 million. The rice is a main crop of the area with use surplus amount of groundwater to take the multiple crops in a year. The water is hard and become turbid on the storage due to precipitation of the metals i.e. Mg, Ca and Fe into oxides and hydroxides. The health problems (i.e. tiredness, diarrhea, stone formation in kidney and spleen, etc.) in the residence of the studied area due to intake of the groundwater were marked. Therefore, in the present work, the water quality assessment of Saraipali area was chosen.
The groundwater samples were collected from 30 locations of the town and nearby villages,
The Hanna water analyzer kits was used for the measurement of the physical parameters. The total dissolved solid (TDS) value was determined by evaporation method by prior filtering the water through glass fiber with subsequent drying at the constant weight [
The various water quality indices i.e. sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), sodium hazard (SH) and water quality index (WQI) were used for rating of the water quality. The weighed arithmetic method was employed for computation of the WQI of the groundwater by using four parameters i.e. pH, DO, EC and TDS [
The equivalent concentrations of cations were used.
qn = Quality rating of the nth water quality parameter.
Vn = Estimated value of the nth parameter of a given water.
Sn = Standard permissible value of the nth parameter.
Vio = Ideal value of the nth parameter of pure water (i.e. 0 for all other parameters except pH and dissolved oxygen (7.0 and 14.6 mg/L, respectively).
Wn = Unit weight for the nth parameter.
Chhattisgarh basin is characterized by rocks belonging to Proterozoic aged sandstone, limestone, and dolomite, conglomerate, etc. Siliciclastic-carbonates are deposited in muddy shelf and platformer environment, indicative of more stable tectonic condition. Its deposition is controlled by several cycles of transgressions and regressions. The Proterozoic grouprocks are found to spread over the studied area. The gypsum minerals are found to be more intense than calcareous minerals, containing both toxic and precious elements at traces.
The physical characteristics of 30 tube well of Saraipali area is summarized in
The chemical characteristics of the groundwater are presented in
S. No. | Location | Age, Yr | Depth, m | T, ˚C | pH | EC, μS/cm | RP, mV | DO, mg/L |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Joganipalidipa | 22 | 30 | 22 | 7.1 | 1169 | 200 | 5.2 |
2 | Joganipali | 10 | 30 | 22 | 6.2 | 1776 | 187 | 5.3 |
3 | Kejuan | 18 | 33 | 21 | 6.9 | 966 | 170 | 5.2 |
4 | Harratar | 13 | 27 | 21 | 7.2 | 1433 | 212 | 5.0 |
5 | Kutela | 15 | 24 | 21 | 7.1 | 1099 | 139 | 5.4 |
6 | Bastisaraipali | 19 | 27 | 22 | 7.0 | 2097 | 165 | 5.0 |
7 | Madhopali | 17 | 27 | 22 | 7.0 | 1190 | 238 | 5.1 |
8 | Parsada | 16 | 24 | 22 | 7.2 | 1127 | 186 | 5.3 |
9 | Telidipa | 12 | 27 | 21 | 6.8 | 888 | 180 | 5.0 |
10 | Lukapara | 7 | 63 | 21 | 6.8 | 3770 | 187 | 4.8 |
11 | Lakhanpali | 21 | 33 | 20 | 6.8 | 1209 | 218 | 5.3 |
12 | Barihapali | 10 | 48 | 20 | 6.8 | 2545 | 191 | 4.9 |
13 | Mokhaputka | 25 | 33 | 21 | 6.6 | 2467 | 181 | 4.9 |
14 | Kumhardipa | 17 | 36 | 22 | 6.5 | 1375 | 214 | 5.1 |
15 | Saraipali | 20 | 30 | 22 | 6.7 | 1100 | 183 | 5.0 |
16 | Paterapali | 15 | 33 | 22 | 6.9 | 4589 | 161 | 5.3 |
17 | Balsi | 25 | 33 | 22 | 6.5 | 1928 | 172 | 5.1 |
18 | Kendudhar | 24 | 30 | 21 | 7.2 | 1910 | 219 | 5.1 |
19 | Bichhiyan | 22 | 33 | 21 | 7.0 | 4082 | 205 | 5.2 |
20 | Sagarpali | 18 | 39 | 20 | 6.8 | 3666 | 194 | 5.1 |
21 | Amarkot | 22 | 24 | 21 | 6.6 | 1080 | 188 | 5.0 |
22 | Mohda | 20 | 27 | 20 | 6.3 | 1888 | 163 | 5.4 |
23 | Navrangpur | 18 | 33 | 20 | 7.1 | 1251 | 172 | 5.3 |
24 | Patsendri | 16 | 36 | 20 | 7.1 | 2730 | 194 | 5.2 |
25 | Bonda | 17 | 36 | 20 | 7.0 | 3094 | 201 | 5.1 |
26 | Girsa | 15 | 33 | 19 | 8.3 | 2045 | 117 | 5.1 |
27 | Jambahlin | 20 | 27 | 20 | 6.9 | 1806 | 213 | 5.1 |
28 | Baitari | 15 | 30 | 21 | 6.8 | 1340 | 226 | 5.4 |
29 | Chattigirhola | 16 | 33 | 21 | 7.0 | 785 | 157 | 5.2 |
30 | Echchhapur | 18 | 30 | 20 | 7.1 | 1968 | 170 | 5.2 |
S. No. | TDS | TA | TH | F− | Cl− | Na+ | K+ | Ca2+ | Mg2+ | Fe | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 748 | 353 | 210 | 0.8 | 27 | 22 | 27 | 13 | 156 | 9.5 | 57 | 34 | 2.4 |
2 | 1183 | 298 | 318 | 0.9 | 92 | 29 | 44 | 15 | 246 | 5.5 | 99 | 39 | 3.8 |
3 | 857 | 286 | 243 | 0.6 | 18 | 21 | 69 | 12 | 118 | 6.0 | 75 | 30 | 2.4 |
4 | 896 | 420 | 306 | 1.2 | 36 | 28 | 31 | 14 | 163 | 6.5 | 101 | 31 | 0.5 |
5 | 651 | 286 | 207 | 0.8 | 18 | 18 | 38 | 11 | 125 | 4.0 | 68 | 22 | 1.1 |
6 | 1310 | 311 | 330 | 1.3 | 129 | 18 | 53 | 17 | 218 | 17.0 | 101 | 42 | 0.7 |
7 | 1028 | 335 | 246 | 0.9 | 27 | 14 | 42 | 31 | 146 | 5.5 | 75 | 31 | 1.1 |
8 | 1071 | 237 | 246 | 1.0 | 42 | 104 | 34 | 7 | 118 | 6.5 | 75 | 31 | 0.4 |
9 | 978 | 347 | 408 | 1.6 | 23 | 29 | 39 | 9 | 102 | 8.5 | 130 | 47 | 2.1 |
10 | 2588 | 585 | 693 | 1.8 | 190 | 120 | 40 | 31 | 311 | 4.0 | 226 | 74 | 0.4 |
11 | 906 | 280 | 258 | 0.8 | 36 | 32 | 69 | 7 | 163 | 4.5 | 86 | 26 | 0.8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
12 | 1731 | 384 | 501 | 1.9 | 125 | 23 | 57 | 26 | 254 | 9.5 | 164 | 53 | 0.9 |
13 | 1868 | 317 | 471 | 1.8 | 134 | 67 | 79 | 19 | 233 | 3.0 | 153 | 51 | 1.5 |
14 | 1554 | 170 | 186 | 0.8 | 65 | 163 | 38 | 23 | 175 | 7.0 | 62 | 18 | 1.2 |
15 | 805 | 213 | 222 | 0.7 | 51 | 15 | 36 | 11 | 156 | 14.0 | 73 | 23 | 2.7 |
16 | 2836 | 464 | 864 | 2.2 | 374 | 42 | 47 | 12 | 351 | 5.5 | 286 | 88 | 0.6 |
17 | 1646 | 183 | 471 | 1.9 | 166 | 34 | 46 | 13 | 251 | 11.0 | 156 | 48 | 1.4 |
18 | 1106 | 573 | 276 | 0.8 | 42 | 22 | 79 | 15 | 260 | 36.0 | 83 | 36 | 0.6 |
19 | 2626 | 543 | 513 | 1.7 | 254 | 120 | 68 | 29 | 311 | 5.0 | 151 | 72 | 1.9 |
20 | 2207 | 610 | 438 | 1.6 | 231 | 68 | 42 | 33 | 317 | 13.5 | 138 | 52 | 0.4 |
21 | 1212 | 244 | 348 | 1.2 | 36 | 22 | 88 | 17 | 155 | 8.5 | 117 | 34 | 7 |
22 | 1960 | 159 | 327 | 1.1 | 120 | 153 | 100 | 13 | 248 | 5.5 | 112 | 30 | 6.9 |
23 | 963 | 268 | 222 | 1.0 | 47 | 25 | 85 | 12 | 131 | 8.0 | 70 | 26 | 2.1 |
24 | 1854 | 360 | 543 | 1.8 | 161 | 32 | 39 | 28 | 282 | 13.0 | 179 | 56 | 1.1 |
25 | 1948 | 329 | 552 | 1.9 | 231 | 28 | 35 | 19 | 257 | 20.0 | 182 | 57 | 1.2 |
26 | 2022 | 372 | 231 | 1.1 | 116 | 21 | 140 | 57 | 226 | 6.0 | 75 | 25 | 0.3 |
27 | 1097 | 433 | 354 | 1.2 | 47 | 21 | 43 | 18 | 179 | 5.0 | 117 | 36 | 1.1 |
28 | 945 | 402 | 219 | 0.8 | 34 | 26 | 61 | 18 | 152 | 12.0 | 70 | 25 | 3.1 |
29 | 792 | 244 | 216 | 0.9 | 35 | 31 | 46 | 12 | 122 | 8.0 | 73 | 21 | 1.5 |
30 | 956 | 549 | 228 | 0.7 | 47 | 31 | 60 | 16 | 260 | 7.5 | 73 | 26 | 0.9 |
The concentration of F−, Cl−,
The correlation coefficient matrix of the water variables are shown in
The FA model showed the extraction of six factors with account for 84.04% of total variance,
The value of TA, TH, Mg, Ca and Fe content was found to be higher than recommended value of 120, 200, 30, 75 and 0.30 mg/L, respectively [
F− | Cl− | Na+ | K+ | Ca2+ | Mg2+ | Fe | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F− | 1 | |||||||||
Cl− | 0.81 | 1 | ||||||||
0.15 | 0.29 | 1 | ||||||||
−0.11 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 1 | |||||||
0.24 | 0.32 | 0.11 | 0.40 | 1 | ||||||
Na+ | 0.65 | 0.86 | 0.29 | 0.09 | 0.42 | 1 | ||||
K+ | −0.02 | 0.02 | −0.26 | −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.18 | 1 | |||
Ca2+ | 0.91 | 0.85 | 0.17 | −0.14 | 0.15 | 0.73 | −0.05 | 1 | ||
Mg2+ | 0.88 | 0.86 | 0.18 | −0.17 | 0.19 | 0.75 | 0.01 | 0.93 | 1 | |
Fe | −0.20 | −0.20 | 0.13 | 0.31 | −0.25 | −0.18 | −0.12 | −0.15 | −0.21 | 1 |
Variable | Factor-1 | Factor-2 | Factor-3 | Factor-4 | Factor-5 | Factor-6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | −0.10 | 0.02 | −0.18 | −0.20 | −0.83 | 0.04 |
Depth | 0.41 | 0.06 | 0.19 | 0.57 | 0.32 | 0.32 |
T | −0.06 | −0.67 | −0.20 | −0.01 | −0.11 | 0.09 |
pH | −0.09 | 0.55 | 0.64 | −0.12 | 0.14 | −0.30 |
EC | 0.88 | 0.14 | 0.31 | 0.02 | −0.03 | 0.25 |
RP | −0.15 | −0.59 | 0.33 | 0.22 | −0.35 | 0.30 |
DO | −0.08 | 0.03 | 0.09 | −0.90 | 0.07 | 0.10 |
TDS | 0.85 | 0.30 | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.40 |
TA | 0.43 | 0.10 | 0.76 | 0.04 | −0.05 | 0.05 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TH | 0.97 | −0.02 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.00 |
F− | 0.91 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.11 | −0.07 |
Cl− | 0.91 | 0.10 | 0.07 | −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.19 |
0.21 | −0.02 | −0.17 | −0.08 | 0.10 | 0.85 | |
−0.03 | 0.87 | −0.15 | −0.12 | −0.21 | 0.08 | |
0.18 | 0.67 | 0.44 | 0.32 | 0.06 | 0.33 | |
Na+ | 0.29 | 0.66 | 0.40 | 0.31 | 0.00 | 0.36 |
K+ | −0.08 | −0.10 | −0.04 | 0.40 | −0.69 | −0.28 |
Ca2+ | 0.96 | −0.01 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.16 | −0.01 |
Mg2+ | 0.95 | −0.05 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.04 |
Fe | −0.24 | −0.01 | −0.76 | 0.06 | −0.33 | 0.15 |
Eigenvalue | 7.85 | 2.96 | 1.81 | 1.66 | 1.37 | 1.15 |
% Total variance | 39.27 | 14.79 | 9.06 | 8.32 | 6.87 | 5.74 |
Cumulative % | 39.27 | 54.05 | 63.11 | 71.43 | 78.30 | 84.04 |
classification of groundwater was grouped on the basis of SH values, excellent (<20%), good (20% - 40%), permissible (40% - 60%), doubtful (60% - 80%) and unsuitable (>80%). It means the water of the studied area was found to be sodic and hard in nature, being unsuitable for the drinking purposes. They could be used for the irrigation purposes but prolonged excessive extraction of the water may cause adverse impacts in rice yields in near future.
The groundwater of Saraipali area is deteriorated rapidly due to its excessive extraction for the irrigation purposes. The water is sodic and hard in nature. The values of EC, TH, TA, Na, Mg, Ca and Fe were observed to be above reported permissible limits. The water is seemed to be unsuitable for the drinking purposes due to high mineralization of the bed-rock elements in the aquifer. The water could be used for the irrigation of the new varieties rice crops required less water with lower ripping life.
We are thankful to the Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur for awarding scholarship to one of the author i.e. SC.
ShabyaChoudhary,ShobhanaRamteke,Keshaw PrakashRajhans,Pravin KumarSahu,SuryakantChakradhari,Khageshwar SinghPatel,LaurentMatini, (2016) Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Central India. Journal of Water Resource and Protection,08,12-19. doi: 10.4236/jwarp.2016.81002