Jatropha curcas L. is one of the recently planted trees that utilizes wastewater in Egypt. It is not just because of its features, such as drought tolerance, rapid growth, and easy propagation, higher oil content than other oil crops, but also because of the Egyptian unique model which uses wastewater for planting Jatropha in the marginal desert land, which in turn represents an excellent opportunity to make use of such land. Moreover, this system provides a good way for reusing the treated sewage water, which itself represents an environment hazard. In addition, Jatropha plantations can be used in the future to be the base for the biodiesel production industry. This review tried to cover the current situation of Jatropha plantations in Egypt. To do so, the paper first reviewed the available land and wastewater resources, and then the potential EU biofuel market situation. Finally, it discussed the biofuel production potentials in Egypt.
As the world seeks a sustainable and green agricultural production on one hand, and seeks sufficient production which can support food security for the growing world population on the other hand, three major problems appears: climate change, pollution and resources limitations. In Egypt, for example, more than 90% of the total land area is marginal desert land [
Jatropha curcas appears to be an ideal plant to produce second-generation biofuels, i.e. manufactured from agricultural or forest residuals and from non-food crop feedstock. J. curcas is suitable for cultivation in marginal and idle lands. Cultivation of the plant for biodiesel production does not induce land-use change, since J. curcas grows in degraded lands, and as a non-food feedstock, it does not compete with agricultural production. A by- product of oil extraction, e.g., seedcake, produces organic fertilizer through composting that can eventually be used as organic manure. This might reduce N2O emissions due to nitrogen-based fertilizers. Finally, J. curcas could represent an opportunity for poor countries to benefit from the growing demand for biofuels [
Jatropha also has many other uses and benefits which increase its value for rural African communities. One of the reasons for interest in Jatropha is its potential for growth in harsh conditions. Jatropha has already been grown or is being grown in many parts of Africa and requires minimal input and is also easy to propagate [
・ Promotion of women (local soap production);
・ Poverty reduction (protecting crops and selling seeds, oil and soap);
・ Erosion control (planting hedges);
・ Energy supply for the household and stationary engines in the rural area.
The obvious advantage of this system is that all the processing procedure, and thus all added value, can be kept within the rural area or even within one village. No centralized processing (like the cotton industry) is necessary [
Development of biofuels from renewable resources is critical to the sustainability of the world’s economy and to slow down the global climate change. Currently, a significant amount of bioethanol and biodiesel are produced as biofuels to partially replace gasoline and diesel, respectively, in the transportation sector worldwide. However, these biofuels represent a tiny portion (<4%) of the total fuels consumed. Furthermore, bioethanol is produced predominantly from sugarcane and corn, and biodiesel from crop and plant oils [
Currently, the EU has the world’s most developed biodiesel industry. Production was about 3.3 billion gallons in 2007, and it will reach 4 billion gallons by 2021. Pushed by the biofuel target, domestic consumption continues to grow during the outlook period, reaching 5.0 billion gallons by 2021. Net imports increased rapidly, from 661 million gallons in 2007 to 824 million gallons in 2014 as a sizeable volume of biodiesel was delivered from Argentina and Brazil. Net imports of EU are expected to hit around 1billion gallons at 2021 [
African countries, such as Sudan, have recently started exporting to the EU market, joining countries with a longer history of exports such as Egypt, Malawi and Zimbabwe, with preferential access to EU markets. African countries have excellent potential to increase their exports, assuming that trade reforms and the conditions for investment in Africa continue to improve, this trend seems likely to persist [
Year | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Production | 3079 | 3191 | 3277 | 3337 | 3422 | 3522 | 3613 | 3712 | 3807 | 3912 | 4022 |
Consumption | 3731 | 3941 | 4046 | 4160 | 4290 | 4427 | 4547 | 4668 | 4783 | 4906 | 5023 |
Net Trade | −661 | −751 | −771 | −824 | −868 | −906 | −934 | −957 | −976 | −994 | −1001 |
More than 90 percent of Egypt is desert. The total agricultural land base totals about 3.5 million ha (8.4 million feddan) represents about 3.5% of the total area, which is about 1 million∙km2 (240 million feddan). Of this agricultural land, 3,276,000 ha (7.8 million feddan) lie within the Nile Basin and Delta, and the remaining 210,000 ha (500,000 feddan) are rain-fed or in the oases. Of the total area of the Nile Basin and Delta, about 2,268,000 ha (5.4 million feddan) are old lands, the remaining 1,008,000 ha (2.4 million feddan) are new reclaimed lands [
In the meanwhile, The River Nile is the main source of water for Egypt with an annual allocated flow of 55.5 Bm3/yr. under the Nile Waters Agreement of 1959. Internal renewable surface water resources are estimated at 0.5 Bm3/yr. This brings total actual renewable surface water resources to 56 Bm3/year. Internal renewable groundwater resources are estimated at 1.3 Bm3/yr. The overlap between surface water and groundwater is being considered negligible, the total actual renewable water resources of the country are thus 57.3 Bm3/yr. The Nubian Sandstone aquifer located under the Western Desert is considered an important groundwater source, but this is fossil groundwater. The main source of internal recharge is percolation from irrigation water in the Valley and the Delta. All drainage water in Upper Egypt, south of Cairo, flows back into the Nile and the irrigation canals; this amount is estimated at 4 Bm3/yr. Drainage water in the Nile Delta is estimated at 14 Bm3/yr. Treated municipal wastewater in 2001/02 was estimated at 2.97 Bm3/yr. There are several desalination plants on the coasts of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean to provide water for seaside resorts and hotels; total production in 2002 was estimated at 100 million∙m3. Estimates of the potential of non-renewable groundwater in the eastern and western deserts, mainly from the Nubian Sandstone aquifer, vary from 3.8 Bm3/yr. to 0.6 Bm3/yr.; the latter estimate is defined as an indicator of exploitability over a period of time, where the time is not given. Total water withdrawal in 2000 was estimated at 68.3 Bm3. This included 59 Bm3 for agriculture (86%), 5.3 Bm3 for municipalities (8%) and 4.0 Bm3 for industry (6%) as displayed in
The Government of Egypt (GOE) continues to invest heavily in expanding the cultivated area, aiming to add another 3.4 million feddan of cultivated land by the year 2017 in order to secure food for the rapidly increasing population [
Also it is worth mentioning that the availability of renewable water resources in Egypt has dropped from 2189 m3/capita/year in 1966 to 1035 m3/capita/year in 1990. With the current population growth rate, it will even drop more to 536 m3/capita/year by the year 2025, if the share of Egypt from Nile waters remains as it is today (55.5 BCM) and levels of per capita consumption are maintained. Various demands for freshwater are exerting excessive pressure on the available water supply. In a nutshell, the strategic problem Egypt confronts is that its renewable water supplies cannot be expanded (and with the quality issues, available water suitable for some purposes may in fact decline), while at the same time population is growing and the economy is expanding, with associated increases in water requirements. By 2017, the National Water Resource Plan estimates that total water requirements will exceed 90 BCM [
Wastewater is the only source of water that increases with the time as population and their activities increase.
Water Input | Million m3/yr | Water Use | Million m3/yr |
---|---|---|---|
Renewable Surface Water Resources | 56,000 | Agriculture | 59,000 |
Renewable Ground Resources | 2300 | Domestic | 5300 |
Reuse of Agricultural Drainage Water (Return Flow to Rivers)* | 4840 | Industry | 4000 |
Reuse of Groundwater (Seepage from Agriculture)* | 6127 | ||
Reuse Treated Wastewater | 2971 | ||
Desalinated Water | 100 | ||
Use of Fossil Groundwater (Non-Renewable Water) | 825 | ||
Total | 73,163 | Total | 68,300 |
Navigation & Hydropower | 4000 |
*Total water returning from agriculture was about 18 km3, of which about 12 km3 was return flow to rivers and 6 km3 seepage to groundwater.
And to make use of this source, the Holding Company for Water and Wastewater (HCWW) was established by presidential decree No. 135/2004 in 2004. The purpose the Holding Company set by a Presidential Decree is to purify, desalinate, distribute and sell drinking water and collect, treat and safely dispose of wastewater, either itself or through affiliate companies [
It’s a big investment for a developing country such as Egypt, but since the untreated sewage can represent a threat to the public health and the environment in general, it has to be done and a small drop of fecal matter can contain millions of microorganisms of many types, some of which are pathogenic. Microbial pathogens in raw or inadequately treated sewage can cause illnesses ranging from temporary stomach cramps to life-threatening conditions such as inflammation of the heart. While, for the healthy population, most of the illnesses resulting from exposure to inadequately treated sewage are relatively minor (respiratory illness; ear, nose or throat irritation; gastroenteritis), they can become serious in more vulnerable populations, including pregnant women, young children, the elderly, and people with suppressed immune systems (such as people with HIV, transplant recipients, and cancer patients) [
However, the current amount of collected wastewater in Egypt is about 6.5 Billion∙m3/yr., of which about 56% (3.65 Billion∙m3/yr.) is treated, and the rest of wastewater which around 2.85 Billion∙m3/yr. is not treated. Anyway, use of treated wastewater has become increasingly important in water resources management for both environmental and economic reasons. Wastewater use in Egypt is an old practice. It has been used since 1930 in sandy soil areas like Al-Gabal, Al-Asfar and Abou Rawash, near Cairo. Interest in the use of treated wastewater, as a substitute for fresh water in irrigation, has accelerated since 1980. Currently, the treated wastewater divided into two types, the first is primary treated and it’s about 20% of the total treated wastewater about 0.73 Billion∙m3/yr. and the second is secondary treated about 2.92 Billion∙m3/yr., but only 0.7 Billion∙m3/yr. of treated wastewater is being used in irrigation, of which 0.26 Billion∙m3/yr. (secondary treated) and 0.44 Billion∙m3/yr. (primary treated) to cultivate forests & some crops. The rest amount of the treated wastewater which about 2.95 Billion∙m3/yr. is pumped to drains & canals in Cairo & Delta [
Wastewater has been used to support the agricultural production in many countries such as USA, Germany, India, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Jordan and Tunisia. Several investigators indicated the beneficial role of wastewater in increasing crop yields without or with minimal risks to the plant, soil, groundwater and health [
Item | Production Capacity (1,000,000 M3/D) | Average Per Capita Share (L/D) | Investment Implemented (LE Billion) |
---|---|---|---|
Till 1982 | 1.1 | 25 | 0.8 |
Till 2007 | 11 | 150 | 40 |
Till 2012 | 28 | 230 | 54 |
culture” and The code was approved by Ministerial Decree No. 171/2005, Ministry of Housing. The code regulates and classifies plants and crops Irrigable with treated municipal wastewater as
Also from
However, expansion of treated wastewater reuse in the region is linked to a number of issues and constraints. The high cost of treatment and management of reclaimed wastewater is one of the major limitations facing the weak economy of most countries. Unclear polices, institutional conflicts and lack of regulatory frameworks constitute other important constraints that hinder implementation and proper operation of wastewater reuse projects [
Over the years, the power sector has always played a substantial role in enhancing economic development in Egypt via securing the domestic energy demand for electricity. Limited primary energy resources are available in Egypt with varying potentialities. The most important of these resources are oil, natural gas, and hydropower. In addition, renewable energy resources, particularly solar and wind, have a good potential [
In 1986, Egypt’s New & Renewable Energy Authority (NREA) was established to act as the national focal point for expanding efforts to develop and introduce renewable energy technologies on a commercial scale. Since then, a number of governmental organizations have been set up to help promote and develop policies to encourage the growth of the renewable energy industry. Egypt’s present energy strategy (adopted by resolution of the SCE in February 2008) aims at increasing the share of renewable energy to 20 percent of Egypt’s energy mix by 2020 [
In Egypt, There is particular interest in using forest plantations as a means of addressing a number of key environmental priorities, including the safe use of primary treated municipal wastewater and for combating desertification. These environmental aims are also compatible with biomass feedstock production for possible future ligno-cellulosic ethanol production [
Grade | Agricultural Group | |
---|---|---|
A | G1-1: Plants and trees grown for greenery at tourist villages and hotels. | Grass, Saint Augustine grass, cetaceous plants, ornamental palm trees, climbing plants, fencing bushes and trees, wood trees and shade trees. |
G1-2: Plants and trees grown for greenery inside residential areas at the new cities. | ||
B | G2-1: Fodder/Feed crops | Sorghum sp. |
G2-2: Trees producing fruits with epicarp. | On condition that they are produced for Processing purposes such as lemon, mango, date palm and almonds. | |
G2-3: Trees used for green belts around cities and afforestation of high waysorroads | Casuarina, camphor, athel tamarix (salt tree), oleander, fruit-producing trees, date palm and olive trees. | |
G2-4: Nursery plants | Nursery plants of wood trees, ornamental plants and fruit trees | |
G2-5: Roses & cut flowers | Local rose, eagle rose, onions (e.g. gladiolus) | |
G2-6: Fiber crops | Flax, jute, hibiscus, sisal | |
G2-7: Mulberry for the production of silk | Japanese mulberry | |
C | G3-1: Industrial oil crops | Jojoba, castor-oil plant, and Jatropha |
G3-2: Wood trees | Kaya, camphor and other wood trees. |
Treatment Grade Requirements | A | B | C | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Effluent limit values for BOD and SS | BODs | <20 | <60 | <400 |
SS | <20 | <50 | <250 | |
Effluent limit value for fecal coliform and nematode cells or eggs (per liter) | Fecal coliform count2 in 100 cm3 | <1000 | <5000 | Unspecified |
Count of nematode cells or eggs per liter | <1 | <1 | Unspecified |
Many plants and crops cultivated in the above mentioned area and Jatropha is one of them (
Governorate* | WWT Plants Total Capacity (’000 cu MT) | Total Available Land Area (Feddan) | Designated |
---|---|---|---|
6 October | 500 | 53,800 | Yes |
Alexandria | 1373 | 70,000 | |
Beheira | 625 | ||
Matrouh | 25 | 3007 | Yes |
Menoufiya | 45 | 1600 | Yes |
North Sinai | 50 | 4000 | only 500 |
South Sinai | 775 | 1019 | Since 1999 |
Ismailia | 100 | 1060 | Since 1991 |
Beni Sewaef | 124 | 2163 | Since 2005 |
Menya | 240 | 7000 | |
Fayoum | 92 | 345 | Since 2008 |
Assiout | 226 | 12,467 | Yes |
New valley | 84 | 4711 | Since 1963 |
Sohag | 284 | 18,325 | Since 1998 |
Qena | 249 | 17,021 | Since 1999 |
Aswan | 107 | 2469 | Yes |
Luxor | 46 | 2086 | Yes |
Red Sea | 2994 | Since 1999 | |
Total | 204,692 |
*Governorates only have available lands for reuse.
In 2008, a feasibility study was made about Jatropha plantations in Luxor by Dr. Imam El Gamassy, and among his results on the national level was that Jatropha, as a source of biofuel, must be part of the renewable energy strategy in Egypt. Plans to promote its use should be taken seriously. And all expansion areas for Jatropha plantation must be near treated wastewater plants in the desert or on marginal lands. Its cultivation must be totally prohibited on agricultural lands. Moreover, Jatropha cultivation should be a government-controlled activity to protect agricultural lands from being used, as they might be if left under private sector management. And at last, the Jatropha biodiesel industry should be planned and established as a national fuel resource as the traditional ones (oil and gas) [
In 2009 Dr. Kenneth Swanberg made a study about “Alternative Crops with Potential for The Reuse of Treated Wastewater in Egypt”. In his study, he tried to identify which one or combination of the crops mentioned earlier might have possibilities for generating significant financial returns for the use of treated wastewater in the allocated area which mentioned in the previous section. One of his key finding was that Jatropha curcas, oil seed crop that is known to be one of the more promising bio-diesel fuel oil crops. Jatropha is grown at several sites, with varying degrees of productivity. However, new plantings at Luxor and Abu Rawash look extremely promising, with earlier than expected yields. With the higher and earlier yields, Jatropha becomes an economically viable crop. In-country processing of bio-diesel is projected and highly recommended in order to capture the full value-added processing income of this crop. He also said, “The real opportunity for Egypt is to grow Jatropha using treated wastewater. Since Jatropha is not edible, and in fact is used as a deterrent to animals in hedgerows, and in some instances as pesticide, it is perfectly suited for use of wastewater. In addition, the wastewater is nutritious for the plant, with nitrogen and other chemicals, and at the wastewater sites, there is plenty of water to be disposed of on the plants, assuring that they will be amply watered. Some of the initial test sites for Jatropha took 2 years to grow fruit, but the recent plantings have borne fruit within the first year. This is very promising.” [
After this review discussed many resources and aspects related to Jatropha plantations in Egypt, now we can conclude the opportunities for Jatropha plantations in Egypt and biodiesel production in the following points.
・ The European Union―the world’s largest biofuel market―they target to reach 10% for the use of renewable energy in road transport fuels by 2020 [
・ The plantation of Jatropha also works for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) promoted by the Kyoto Protocol. For example, under the Kyoto Protocol, Japan needs to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions about 12 billion tons between 2008 and 2012, which is 6% of the 1990 emission level. However, the actual GHG emissions in 2006 exceeded more than the double of the allowance. The former Prime Minister Abe appealed to reduce 50% of the world GHG emission by 2050, but Japan should prove its responsibility and reliability with Kyoto treaty at first before the high and long term promising. This unique Egyptian biofuel model―biofuel from wastewater and waste land―can be a good opportunity for a Japanese contribution to the global warming mitigation outside of Japan. By our rough assumption for the Egyptian model, 1 million hectors of Jatropha plantation is expected to produce 1 million ton of BDF. This 1 million ton of BDF usage would reduce 2 million tons of CO2 emission. Annually, a value of 28 million US$ market would be delivered. The Egyptian actual profits from the carbon trading would be one-half or one-third of the expected value [
・ Jatropha plantations could cause some impacts on the society as well, as most of the potential suitable area for Jatropha plantations located in Upper Egypt, which is less developing, more rural and poorer than any other area in Egypt, moreover most of labor from this area migrates to Lower Egypt [
In 1997, the Egyptian government started Jatropha plantations experiment as part from “The National Program for Safe Use of Treated Sewage Water for Afforestation” which aims to expand the green stretch in the desert by introducing forests plantation (man-made forests) and to produce high economic value trees by making use of treated sewage water. Moreover, giving that more than 90 percent of Egypt is desert [