Results from studies with animal models suggest that, in many cancers, CXCR4 is an important therapeutic target and that CXCR4 antagonists may be promising treatments for primary cancers and for metastases. The Nef protein effectively competes with CXCR4’s natural ligand, SDF-1α, and induces apoptosis. As described in this report, the Nef-M1 peptide (Nef protein amino acids 50 - 60) inhibits primary tumor growth and metastasis of breast cancer (BC). Four BC cell lines (MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, MCF 7, and DU4475) and primary human mammary epithelium (HME) cells were evaluated for their response to the Nef protein and to the Nef-M1 peptide. The presence of CXCR4 receptors in these cells was determined by RT-PCR, Western blot (WB), and immunohistochemical analyses. The apoptotic effect of Nef-M1 was assessed by terminal transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL). WBs was used to assess caspase 3 activation. BC xenografts grown in SCID mice were evaluated for the presence of CXCR4 and for their metastatic potential. CXCR4 was presented in MDA-MB-231, MCF 7, and DU 4475 BC cells but not in MDA-MB-468 BC or HME cells. Cells expressing CXCR4 and treated with Nef-M1 peptide or the Nef protein had higher rates of apoptosis than untreated cells. Caspase-3 activation increased in MDA-MB 231 cells treated with the Nef protein, the Nef 41 - 60 peptide, or Nef-M1. Nef-M1, administered to mice starting at the time of xenograft implantation, inhibited growth of primary tumors and metastatic spread. Untreated mice developed diffuse intraperitoneal metastases. We conclude that, in BCs, Nef-M1, through interaction with CXCR4, inhibits primary tumor growth and metastasis by causing apoptosis.
In American women, breast cancer (BC) is the most frequent cancer and the second leading cause of cancerrelated deaths. In 2013, 232,340 new cases of invasive BC are estimated to occur among women, and approximately 39,620 women are expected to die from BC [
Certain chemokines and their receptors, in particular stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1α and CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), are involved in cancer cell migration, proliferation, and survival [
CXCR4 is highly expressed in human BC cells, and activation of the receptor with SDF-1α induces chemotaxis and tissue invasion [
The Nef gene of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) encodes a 27 - 34 kD myristoylated protein, which is expressed early after establishment of the provirus in host cells. Nef protein competes with CXCR4’s natural ligand, SDF-1α, and induces apoptosis [
Nef-Motif-1 (Nef-M1 or M1) and Nef sMotif-1 (NefsM1 or sM1, the scrambled amino acid sequence of NefM1) were obtained from Sigma Genosys (Houston, TX). Antibodies used includes monoclonal mouse anti-human fusin clone 12G5, mIgG2a (CXCR4) (Research and Diagnostics Inc., Flanders, NJ); anti-mouse flourescein isothiocynate, mIgG (H + L) made in goat (Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford IL).
Four human BC cell lines (MDA-MB231, MDA-MB468, MCF7, and DU4475) and one normal mammary epithelial cell line (HME) were used. Each cell line was originally purchased from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA) and cryopreserved. All cell lines were cultured in 5% CO2 at 37˚C in RPMI 1640 medium (Invitrogen, Palo Alto, CA.) supplemented with L-glutamine (2 mM) (Cellgro, Fisher Scientific, Suwanee, GA), 10% fetal bovine serum (Biowhittaker-Cambrex, Walkersville, MD), and penicillin (100 U/mL)/streptomycin (100 U/mL) (Biowhittaker-Lonza). Cell cultures were grown to 80% confluence and injected into mice according to an established protocol.
Total RNA was extracted from MDA-MB231 and MDAMB468 samples using the RNAzolTM B (TEL-TEST, Inc., Friendswood, TX) following the manufacturer’s instructions. mRNA expression of CXCR4 was determined by RT-PCR. Total RNA (5 μg) was reverse transcribed into cDNA with SuperScriptTM III One-Step RT-PCR System with Platinum Taq DNA Polymerase Kits (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA). The reaction was accomplished in 50 µL mixtures maintained at 55˚C for 30 min, followed immediately by denaturing at 94˚C for 2 min. The following sequences of human CXCR4 primers used for PCR were: a) hCXCR4-1, 1097 bp of CXCR4 (forward): 5’-atgaaacttggggcgaggac-3’; (reverse): 5’-cggtgtagttatctgaagtg-3’; b) hCXCR4-2, 922 bp of CXCR4 (forward): 5’-atgtccattcctttgcctct-3’; (reverse): 5’-aaagcatagaggatggggtt-3’; and c) hCXCR4-3, 508bp of CXCR4 (forward): 5’-tacctggccatcgtccacgc-3’; (reverse): 5’-tccaaacacgagtgcatacc-3’. cDNA synthesis and denaturation were accomplished at 55˚C for 30 min and at 94˚C for 2 min, then 35 cycles of PCR amplification included denaturation at 94˚C for 15 sec, annealing at 60˚C for 30 sec, extended at 68˚C for 1 min, and final extension at 68˚C for 5 min. Region 2984 to 4081 of human CXCR4 were amplified (GenBank accession no. AF005058). PCR products were visualized on 1.5% agarose gels containing ethidium bromide and analyzed with Fotodyne FOTO/Analyst Luminary Workstations (Fotodyne, Inc., Hartland, WI). The PCR products were purified by use of a QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA) and sequenced by ABI Applied Biosystems, 3130 x1, Genetic Analyzer Data Collection software V3.0 (ABI, Foster City, CA).
Cells were grown to 80% confluence in 6 well plates for 48 hr. Cells were washed twice in ice-cold PBS containing 1 mM Na3VO4, and incubated at room temperature (RT) for 2 min in 200 µL of lysis solution (1.0% Nonidet P-40 [NP-40; Sigma]; 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5; 20 mM EDTA buffer). The lysates were centrifuged for 20 min at 12,000 rpm at 4˚C. The supernatants were collected and stored at −70˚C. Protein concentrations were determined with the Bradford assay kit (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA). Portions of each sample (25 μl) were separated by SDS-PAGE on a 4% - 20% Tris-HCl Criterion precast gel (Bio-Rad Laboratories) and electrophoretically transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. The membranes were washed in 1× Tris-buffered saline (TBS) for 5 min, and then blocked with 5% nonfat milk in 1× TTBS (1× TBS and 0.1% Tween 20) for 1 hr by shaking at RT. For detection of CXCR4 protein expression, a mouse anti-human CXCR4-specific antibody was used. This was accomplished by shaking the membranes at 4˚C overnight, as directed by the manufacturer, followed by application of horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibody (H + L). Protein bands were detected by Western Blotting Luminol Reagent. After detection of CXCR4, the blots were stripped and hybridized with a monoclonal mouse anti-α-tubulin (clone B-5-1-2), then probed with the HRP-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibody (H + L).
MDA-MB231 and MDA-MB468 cells were grown in RPMI1640 medium with 10% fetal bovine serum in 35-mm plates for 48 hr. Cells were rinsed with PBS containing 0.1% glycine to reduce intrinsic fluorescence and blocked with 1% goat serum in PBS containing 0.3% Triton X-100 at RT for 1 hr. The cells were stained with an anti-CXCR4 primary antibody (1:250) at 4˚C overnight. The plates were rinsed with PBS containing 1% Triton X-100 at RT, exposed to a secondary antibody tagged with fluorescent isothiocyanate (FITC), and washed again with PBS. Images were taken by fluorescence microscopy (magnification, ×400) and arranged with Adobe Photoshop 5.0.2 software.
Dilution of the Nef-M1 peptide or protein was accomplished according to a previously reported protocol [11, 12]. Dose responses were assessed by incubating 2.5 × 105 MDA-MB231, MDA-MB468, MCF7, or HME cells with the Nef-M1 peptide or the intact Nef protein at various concentrations in 35-mm multiwall plates for 24 hr. The concentrations of Nef-M1 peptide or Nef protein were 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100ng/mL. Analysis was by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL).
To evaluate apoptosis, TUNEL assays were performed with an in situ cell death detection protocol. The procedure for immunohistochemical detection and quantification of apoptosis was based on labeling of DNA breaks. The cells were treated with Nef-M1peptide or Nef protein at 37˚C for 24 hr. Cells were washed with PBS, then fixed with 1 mL of a freshly prepared solution of 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS, pH 7.4, for 1 hr at RT. Cells were rinsed with PBS and incubated in permeabilization solution (0.1% Triton X-100, 0.1 sodium citrate) for 10 min at RT. The cells were rinsed with PBS, and 50 µL of TUNEL reaction mixture, consisting of TdT and biotinylated nucleotides was added. The cells were incubated in a humidified chamber for 1 hr at 37˚C and rinsed three times with PBS. Samples were analyzed under a fluorescence microscope. The values derived were a compilation of at least three independent experiments, and bars were used to show the standard errors of the measurements.
After being treated with scrambled Nef-sM1 (Nef-sM1), Nef-171-180, Nef protein, Nef 41 - 60, or Nef-M1peptide, MDA-MB231 cells cultured in 6 well plates were harvested. WB analysis and a monoclonal mouse anti-caspase-3 antibody (Active Motif Inc, Carlsbad, and CA) were used to characterize the expression of caspase-3. A monoclonal mouse anti-α-tubulin (clone B-5-1-2) (Sigma) was used to detect expression of α-tubulin for a loading control. Caspase-3 protein bands were detected by Western Blotting Luminol Reagent, followed by exposure to photographic BioMax film (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA). Images were scanned into Adobe Photoshop 5.0.2, and densitometry was performed using Scion Imaging software, Release Beta 3b (Scion Corporation, Frederick, MD).
Severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) female mice were purchased from Taconic Farms (Taconic, NY) at four weeks of age and quarantined for one week prior to use. The mice were inoculated with BC cells or tumor tissue implants to establish primary tumors or to metastasize to the liver. Food, water, and bedding were sterilized by autoclaving. The mice were kept in micro-filtered cages in a room designated for immune-compromised mice. On a daily basis, the animals were evaluated regarding their health status and tumor growth. Body weights, nutritional intake, general activity, and ruffling of fur were used to determine the health status. All surgical procedures were accomplished under a laminar flow hood and with sterile protocols. A liquid sterilant, Exspor (Alcide Co., Norwalk, CT) was used to sanitize the gloves of handlers and mouse skin at the site of planned surgery.
MDA-MB231 cells (5 × 106 in 0.1 mL of Hanks balanced salt solution) were injected subcutaneously. For primary growth of tumors, the injections were made into the flank. Tissue implants were also performed. A solid tumor developing after injection of cells was cut into 2 - 4 mm pieces in serum-free culture media and kept at 4˚C until used. The mice were sedated with 0.6 mL of avertin (2,2,2-tri-bromoethanol and 2-methyl-2-butanol). To assess metastatic potential, tumors were implanted subcutaneously in mouse mammary tissue or in the gonadal fat. Surgical wound closures were made using 5 - 0 absorbable sutures or skin staples. Following tumor implantation, the mice were placed under a heat lamp for 10 min to recover and then placed back in their cages. At 2 hr after the procedure, they were checked for recovery and stability. Starting at the time of tumor implantation, the mice were dosed intraperitoneal (2 micrograms biweekly) with the Nef-M1 peptide or with the vehicle.
As determined by WB analysis, there was CXCR4 phenotypic expression in three BC cell lines, MDA-MB231, MCF 7, and DU 4475; in contrast, there was no expression in MDA-MB468 cells or in HME cells (
The effects of the CXCR4 antagonists, Nef-M1 peptide and Nef protein, on apoptosis in BC cell lines was evaluated by TUNEL assays. Dose response analyses revealed that the percentages of labeled MDA-MB231 and MCF7 cells were increased with increasing concentrations of Nef-M1 peptide or protein (
The level of apoptosis in MDA-MB231 cells treated with
CXCR4 positive in MDA-MB-231 CXCR4 negative MDA-MB-468
Nef protein or peptides (Nef 171 - 180, Nef 41 - 60, NefM1, or Nef-sM1) was assessed by cleavage of the 32 kDa procaspase-3 protein into two smaller 17 kDa and 12 kDa proteins. As shown in
BC xenografts were derived from MDA-MB231cells, which had high expression of CXCR4. The effects of the Nef-M1 peptide on primary BC growth and metastasis were evaluated (
strated that treated mice had tumors that were smaller than those in untreated mice (3.19 cm3 vs. 4.29 cm3) and smaller metastatic lesions (0.39 cm3 vs. 2.1 cm3) as compared to their untreated counterparts (data not shown). Thus, the untreated mice had larger primary tumor growth and more diffuse intraperitoneal metastasis. In addition, in treated mice, gonadal fat pads that had been implanted with cancer cells were clear of tumor tissue, but the gonadal fat pads in the untreated mice developed
tumors.
Previous results from our laboratory demonstrated, in SCID mice, inhibitory effects of the Nef-M1 peptide on the growth of primary CRC xenografts generated from fresh surgical specimens of human CRCs. The peptide has been found to be an inducer of apoptosis in CRC cells [
In the present report, to determine the effect of the Nef-M1 peptide as an inhibitor of BC progression, we focused on its impact on apoptosis of BC cells. We also used mouse models to determine its impact on primary tumor growth and metastasis. The Nef-M1 peptide was highly cytotoxic to a BC cell line expressing CXCR4, and the effect was relative to the presence of CXCR4 on the cell surface. Administered to mice with BCs, the peptide caused a reduction of primary tumor growth and inhibition of metastases.
Chemokine receptors, which belong to the family of G-protein-coupled receptors, are involved in regulation of the immune response, inflammation, leukocyte trafficking, and cytoskeletal rearrangement [
CXCR4 is highly expressed in solid human cancers, including breast [
Tumor implantation, growth, and metastasis are dependent on neovascularization through angiogenesis [34, 35]. Over-expression of CXCR4 induces tumor metastasis through enhanced proliferation of cells caused by stimulating the MAP/Erk kinase pathway and through accelerating vascularization by activating vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [36,37]. These mechanisms may be operative at primary sites as well as at distant sites throughout the life span of the tumor. In endothelial cells, the chemokine receptor/chemokine ligand, CXCR4/ SDF-1α, is involved in growth factor-regulated signaling pathways. These pathways, linked to CXCR4, mediate steps in postnatal vascular remodeling and angiogenesis, which can lead to establishment and subsequent viability of tumors. Thus, targeting of CXCR4 by an appropriate therapeutic agent may be a means of controlling the aggressiveness of cancers.
Agents that specifically target the CXCR4 receptor have been developed [38,39]. By blocking the receptor from interacting with its natural ligand, inhibition of primary tumor growth and metastasis can be achieved. These CXCR4 antagonists, originally created to combat HIV-1, do not eliminate cells, but rather compete with the SDF-1α ligand. Apparently, the Nef-M1 peptide interacts with CXCR4 like other synthetic antagonists and inhibits primary tumor growth and metastasis. However, Nef-M1 also induces apoptosis in tumor cells [10,11]. Elevated levels of caspase-3 in surgical specimen xenografts that were treated with Nef-M1 peptide demonstrated the role of the peptide in induction of apoptosis. Caspases, which were essential for driving the apoptosis process, have been termed “executioner” proteins [
This work was supported by Department of Defense Award W81XWH-08-1-0476 (Bumpers). This work was also partially supported by NIH/NIGMS/MBRS [Grant 58268], NIH/NCRR/RCMI [Grant G12-RR03034] (Bond and Huang) and NIH (grants U54CA118623) (Manne).
We thank Dr. Donald Hill of University of Alabama at Birmingham for critical suggestions and editorial help.