J. Service Science & Management, 2009, 2: 404-417
doi:10.4236/jssm.2009.24049 Published Online December 2009 (www.SciRP.org/journal/jssm)
Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of
Work University Employees Do: Evidence from
the University of Botswana
Thabo T. Fako1, Stoffel R. T. Moeng1, Ntonghanwah Forcheh2
1Department of Sociology, University of Botswana, Botswana; 2Department of Statistics, University of Botswana, Botswana.
Received July 15, 2009; revised August 27, 2009; accepted October 3, 2009.
ABSTRACT
The study investigated the extent to which male and female employees of a University differ in various attributes and
attitudes and in the level of satisfaction with the type of work they do, and further established factors that might help
explain these differences. A stratified random sample of 360 academic and administrative staff of the University of
Botswana was collected. Findings indicate that differences between males and females in the level of satisfaction were
due to certain negative work experien ces such as gender discrimina tion, triba lism and racism, nepotism and favoritism,
and due to certain sources of stress from the immediate supe rvisor, demands of work o n private life and from domestic
responsibilities. These negative experiences contributed to lower levels of satisfaction among women than among men.
Considering all factors that might explain different job satisfaction among employees at a university, five attributes
stood out as significant, namely: belonging to an older age group; understanding the competing demands of teaching
and research responsibilities; taking advantage of technological advancement at work; perceiving equity in the distri-
bution of the workload; feeling that there was always enough to do at work.
Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Gender, University Employees, Multivariate Analysis, Botswana
1. Introduction
The main objective of this study was to determine w he the r
or not there were significant gender differences in the
level of satisfaction with the type o f work that e mployees
of a university do. The second objective was to deter-
mine whether or not the difference (if it exists) in satis-
faction with the type of work that male and female em-
ployees of a university do could be explained by other
factors within and outside the work environment. Finally
we sought to identify key attributes th at could be used to
predict the likelihood of job satisfaction among univer-
sity employees.
In recent years, there has been a consistent call at in-
ternational, regional, national and institutional levels for
gender to be integrated into all decision-making proc-
esses [1,2]. In recognition of the importance of gender in
the workplace, the University of Botswana established
the Gender Policy Programme Committee (GPPC) to create
gender awareness and facilitate the incorporation of g end er
into policies, academic programs and administrative pr oce -
dures [3]. However, systematic empirical research that s e ek s
to understand gender differences and inform policy deci-
sions in a university environment is still at its infanc y.
Several studies have reported higher levels of job sat-
isfaction among male employees compared to female
employees. In a study of academics across eight nations,
[4] found that male academics tended to be more satis-
fied with most aspects of their jobs than female academ-
ics. Cooper and Kelly [5] found that significantly more
female head teachers in secondary and higher education
schools suffered job dissatisfaction than their male coun-
terparts. In Botswana, Maphorisa [6] found that male teach-
ers in secondary schools reported higher levels of job
satisfaction than females with the same length of teach-
ing experience.
It has been argued that male workers are more likely to
be satisfied with their jobs than female workers [7] espe-
cially in organizations where males have more opportu-
nities for advancement or where females are the last to be
employed and the first to be fired [8]. In many societies
females still generally face greater challenges of access
to education, access to mentors and sponsors, and de-
mands related to home and family responsibilities as well

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 405
Evidence from the University of Botswana
as lack of female role models, all of which could lead to
lower job satisfaction.
Amaro et al. [9] found that having children was nega-
tively associated with personal and professional satisfac-
tion among Hispanic women professionals, managers and
business owners. Sekaran [10] found that men had higher
levels of job satisfaction because they spent less time in
childcare and household activities and therefore, had more
discretionary time to spend on job relat ed acti vities. Women
on the other hand, experienced significantly lower levels
of satisfaction when they spend greater amounts of dis-
cretionary time on job related activities as opposed to
childcare and household activities. Hanson and associates
[11] found that rural women with a smaller number of
children who devoted resources not needed for child rearing
to attaining occupational goals had higher levels of job
satisfaction. Demands from both the home and the work
environment are likely to affect the performance and
satisfaction of male and female employees differently.
Given the patriarchal system in which married female
employees may have less time to spend on professional
self development and research and subsequent publica-
tion in favor of domestic activities, it would seem that the
scales are tipped in favor of male output, career prospects
and job satisfaction.
While most of the literature reviewed suggests that
men are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs than
women in most occupations, a few studies have found
females to be more satisfied with their work than males
[12–15] For example, Rondeau [16] found that female
physicians were more satisfied with their jobs than their
male counterparts. Gardner et al. [17] found that female
anaesthetists in South Africa were more satisfied with
their jobs than their male counterparts. Other studies
have found no differences in the level of job satisfaction
between men and women [18,19].
2. Conceptual Framework
Job satisfaction is one of the most widely discussed and
enthusiastically studied constructs among scholars in the
behavioral and organizational sciences [20]. By the early
1970’s, more than 4,000 articles had been published on
the topic [21]. Yet, job satisfaction is among the least
understood phenomena in organizations today [22].
The concept of job satisfaction consists of at least
three dimensions: 1) a subjective perception of the job by
the individual; 2) the degree to which the job is perceived
as pleasurable; 3) the difference between what employees
want out of a job and what they actually get from the job.
As a subjective perception, job satisfaction represents a
worker’s own evaluation of his or her job [23]. It is ho w the
worker feels about his or her work [22] or about various
facets of the work environment [24]. Job satisfaction is
largely a present-oriented response to the current situa-
tion or conditions at work [25]. It reflects favorable or
unfavorable views employees have toward the work itself
[26] and aspects of work such as pay, supervision, bene-
fits and so on [15]. It is simply the degree to which a
person feels satisfied by their job [27].
Job satisfaction has also been defined as a pleasurable
or positive emotional reaction and state of mind resulting
from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences [28,29],
the tasks one has to perform at work, as well as the physical
and social conditions of the workplace [30,31]. It is a
positive emotional and cognitive attitude that results from
the pleasure a worker derives from component facets of
the job [32]. It consists of positive feelings at the end of
the job [33], and reflects the degree to which individuals
like their jobs [34,35] or simply enjoy their occupations
[36], experience a sense of self-growth and accomplish-
ment in their work and would choose the same job again
if given an opportunity [37].
Job satisfaction has also been defined in terms of dis-
crepancies between desires and achievements at work. It
is as a combination of cognitive and affective reactions to
the differential percep tions of what an employee wants to
receive compared with what he or she actually receives
[38]. It is a function of the perceived relationship be-
tween what one wants from one’s job and what one per-
ceives the job offers [39], or “what is expected (or de si r ed)
and what is received”. Job satisfaction is determined by th e
difference between the amount of some valued outcome
that a person receives and the amount of the outcome he
feels he should receive [20]. If one expects little and gets
little, they would be satisfied. Similarly, if one expects a
lot and gets a lot, they would be satisfied. If one expected
a lot and got little, they would be dissatisfied.
It has been reported that many employees are not sat-
isfied with the type of job they d o [26,40]. Kristiina [41]
found that six out of ten workers were planning to leave
their current employer for other pursuits within the next
two years. In Denmark, Pors and Johannsen [42] found
that 25 percent of library employees left their employ-
ment before serving three years due mainly to dissatis-
faction with their jobs. Dissatisfying job conditions mo-
tivate employees to engage in behaviors aimed at reduc-
ing frustration and anxiety, and at improving working con-
ditions, the standard of living an d equality [43]. Dissatis-
fied workers may be disruptive, go on strike and may
even resort to violence and cause physical harm to other
employees [44].
3. The Research Problems
It is known that low levels of job satisfaction can have a
negative effect on morale [45], employee relations [26],
employee performance, organizational functioning [46],
organizational efficiency and productivity. Low job sat-
isfaction or outright dissatisfaction with a job is likely to

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 406 Evidence from the University of Botswana
evoke an array of negative and potentially damaging per-
sonal and professional consequences [28] such as frustra-
tion, deterioration of mental and physical health [47],
withdrawal, absence, lateness, sickness, accidents [26],
intra–organization al conflict [47], thinking abou t quitting
and retirement [48], examining the costs and benefits a sso -
ciated with leaving a job, and labour turnover [49]. In-
tentions to quit can be very costly to organizations [50].
A recent “Ernst & Young” survey calculated that the cost
of replacing a high-level employee may be as much as
150 percent of the departing employee's salary [41].
In educational institutions pressures from academic
and organizational reform, working with challenging stu-
dents, increased staff–student ratios, increased administra-
tive duties, time constraints, eco nomic difficulties, dwin-
dling financial resources from both internal and external
sources, funding shortages, etc, increase the level of
stress and reduce job satisfaction [51]. In Africa, repres-
sive regimes, poor management, mediocrity and com-
placency and have led to the deterioration of universities
and tertiary education in general. For more than two
decades, universities and other educational institutions in
Africa have, to varying degrees, experienced overstr etched
financial and physical resources, deterioration of existing
facilities and infrastructure, lack of a maintenance culture,
insipient decay in the fabric of institutions and a decline
in quality and excellence [52]. These conditions are bound
to strain human resources and result in low levels of job
satisfaction among employees.
In addition, advan ces in information techno logies have
resulted in information overload du e to the increased use
of e-mail and the Internet. While technology is desired
and can make work more interesting and satisfying, it has
also meant that workers are never really far from the of-
fice, and can be reached anytime on cell phones. Those
who fail to catch up with technological develop ments run
the risk of frustration and poor performance at work,
which may lead to reduced job satisfaction [47].
Given the importance of job satisfaction on employee
productivity, it is necessary to periodically take a snap
shot of the extent of job satisfaction among employees of
major organizations, especially after major changes are
introduced in the organization. At the University of Bot-
swana, two such major changes were the restructuring of
the administrative system and the restructuring of the
academic system through the introduction of semesteri-
sation in 2002. It is therefore, opportune to investigate
the extent to which employees of a major national insti-
tution are satisfied with their job, and to determine the
role of gender as a key factor.
4. Methods
The target population for the study comprised of all em-
ployees with officially allotted office space. This included
all academic staff, all managerial (executive, senior and
middle level administrative) staff including the secretar-
ies and support staff of sections and departments whose
names appeared in the university telephone directory. Th us
the lower end of the hierar chy (who did not appear in th e
telephone directory) such as messengers, gardeners, and
other junior level staff, were not included in the study.
All 1460 staf f members were identified within this study
population of which 928 worked in academic faculties while
the remaining 532 (36.4%) worked in non-academic units.
For sampling purposes, the study population was strati-
fied into enumeration units. The average size of the enu-
meration units was 11 employees. Broadly, each enumera-
tion unit was a well defined administrative or academic
department with a staff establishment of approximately
11 employees (such as the Department of Sociology), a
combination of small Departments that had substantially
less than 11 employees (such as Educational Technology
and Home Economics) or a sub-division of a larger de-
partment that had substantially more than 11 employees
(such as the Department of English).
The study targeted 25 percent of employees, which
translated into approximately 3 staff members from each
Enumeration Unit. The 10 to 12 staff members within
each unit were numbered sequentially and simple random
sample approach used to select three staff members from
each unit. In order to minimize non-response, all staff
members were formerly notified of the study, and its
benefit to them, and two weeks were allowed for data
collection, with follow-ups made during the two weeks.
5. Measurement of Variables
A questionnaire was used to r ecord a variety of informat i on
about employee attributes and work-related attitudes and
experiences. The main variable of our research interest,
“satisfaction with the type of work that employees did”,
was measured by asking each respondent to rate the level
of satisfaction with the type of work that he or she did on
a scale from zero to 10. Zero represented the lowest level
of satisfaction and 10 represented the highest level of
satisfaction. For analysis, the level of satisfaction with
the type of work employees did was divided into three
ordinal categories: 1=High, 2=Moderate and 3=Low, which
corresponded to scores of 7-10, 4-6 and 0-3 respectively.
Background variables were measured by appropriately
phrased questions on respondent’s gender, age, number
of dependent children, level of education, type of con-
tract, years of service, etc. Negative experiences at work
were measured by asking respondents to indicate on a
scale from zero to 10 how often they experienced tribal-
ism and racism, xenophobia, gender discrimination, nepo-
tism and favoritism. Stress from different sources was
measured by asking respondents to indicate on a scale
from zero to 10 how often they experienced stress from i m-

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 407
Evidence from the University of Botswana
mediate supervisors, domestic responsibilities, demands
of work on private life, relations with subordinates, and
from the appropriateness of their qualifications. Various
aspects of the work environment were measured by ques-
tions asking respondents to indicate, on a four-point scale
ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, the ex-
tent to which: technology at work was up to date; they
felt misplaced in their job; they experienced competing
and conflicting work demands; there was tribalism in re-
cruitment and promotion; they made a valued contribu-
tion at work; there was autonomy at work; the level of
supervision was adequate; and there was clarity in their
job description or responsibilities. For purp oses of analy-
ses each of these variables was recoded into an ordinal
variable, as shown in attached tables.
6. Data Analysis Methods
Preliminary analysis was directed at determining basic
characteristics of the selected employees as well as de-
termining the ex tent to which they were satisfied with the
type of work that they did. Chi-squared tests of associa-
tion were used to investigate whether there were statisti-
cally significant1 differences between male and female
employees with respect to their background characteris-
tics, work-context experiences, the chemistry of social
relations at work, sources of stress and satisfaction with
the type of work that they did.
Further analysis were aimed at investigating whether
the association between gender and satisfaction with the
type of work employees did depended on, and could be
explained by other factors. For these analyses, variables
that were found to have a statistically significant rela-
tionship with gender were introduced one at a time as
controls for the bivariate relationship between gender and
satisfaction with the type of work employees did. The
use of controls was important because some of the fac-
tors that on their own could explain differences in em-
ployee’s level of satisfaction were also associated with
gender. Suppose for example that older employees tend
to be more satisfied than younger employees, but more
females tend to be younger employees than males. Then
in order to determine the extent to which satisfaction
depends on gender, one would need to exclude the medi-
ating effect of age on satis fac t i on.
One way of doing so (i.e. adjusting or controlling for
age) is to do different comparisons of males and females
within younger respondents and within older respondents
(within the age variable) and for all respondents combined
(overall). The Mantel-Haenszel chi-square test of asso-
ciation [53] was employed to assess whether the associa-
tion between gender and satisfaction with the type of w ork
employees did still remained statistically significant when
controlling for significant background variables, work-
context variables and variables measuring the chemistry
of relations at work. The decision as to whether an asso-
ciation was statistically significant was measured using
the likelihood (the p-value of the test) that the null hy-
pothesis of no association could be true in the general
population. The smaller the p-v alue is, the lower the like-
lihood that the null hypo thesis is true and vice versa. The
traditional cut-off of 5 percent (p=0.05) was used.
A model for predicting the probability that an em-
ployee would be satisfied given their gender, while con-
trolling for the moderating factors such as age, marital
status, etc. was developed. Competing models were the
ordinal regression and a proportional odds model of the
logistic family [54,55], since the dependent variable,
“satisfaction with type of work employees do” had three
ordinal levels (high, moderate and low).
The proportional odds model involved recoding the
dependent variable into two dichotomous variables, Y1
and Y2. Where, for a given employee, Y1 equ al to 1 if the
employee’s level of satisfaction was high and 0 other-
wise; and Y2 equal to 1 if the employee’s level of satis-
faction was high or moderate and 0 if it was low. Hence
the models provided a framework for comparing em-
ployees who were highly satisfied with those who were
not, and also comparing employees who were not satis-
fied (low level of satisfaction) with those that were satis-
fied (high or medium level of satisfaction). The fitted model,
as implemented in SAS Version 8, produces separate
intercept parameters and the same regression parameters
for the two logits2. The model results include estimates
of the coefficients of each factor level in the model and
their standard error as well as corresponding Wald statis-
tic for determining the level of significance of the factor
level, the level of significance of the Wald statistics, the
odds ratio and its 95% confidence interval. The odds
ratio is particularly useful in comparing the relative like-
lihood that an employee with a given attribute would be
satisfied relative to an employee with a reference attrib-
uted. For example, the odd-ratio corresponding to “mid-
dle age”, gives the likelihood that a middle aged respon-
dent would be satisfied compared to a young employee
(the reference category for age), when all other factors in
the model are considered. The stepwise variable selection
procedure with backward elimination was used to derive
the most parsimonious model. The adequacy and good-
ness of fit of the fitted models were evaluated using the
score test and the global Wald statistics respectively.
6.1 Preliminary Findings
The sample consisted of 360 university employees. There
were 233 (65.8%) males and 121 (34.2%) females who
indicated their gender. Out of 355 who indicated their
age, 20.6% were categorized as old (50 years or older),
1Subsequently, a “significant difference” shall imply “a statistically sig-
nificant difference” in this paper.

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do:
Evidence from the University of Botswana
408
48.5% were categorized as middle aged (35-49 years)
and 31.0% were categorized as young (35 years or
younger). Many respondents (46.1%) had one or two
dependent children, 34.4% had three or more dependent
children whil e 19.4 % had no dependent chil dren.
Most respondents (57.9%) were employed on a per-
manent basis while the remainder (42.1%) were employed
on renewable contract (mostly for two years). Respon-
dent’s educational background included 37.4% with a
doctorate degree, 36.0% with a Masters degree and 26.6%
with qualifications below a Masters degree (i.e., post
graduate diploma and Bachelor’s degree or lesser quali-
fications). The majority of respondents (84.4%) worked
in the six academic Faculties (Business, Education, En-
gineering, Humanities, Science and Social Science) and
74.4% described their current responsibilities at work as
a combination of teaching, research, service and some
administrative duties.
The mean rating for satisfaction with type of work re-
spondents did w as 7.29 (median=8). Wh en level of satis-
faction with the type of work employees did was broken
into three ordinal categories, 73.0% of respondents were
classified as being highly satisfied with the type of work
they did, 21.0% as moderately satisfied and only 6.0%
were classified as having a low level of satisfaction with
the type of work they did.
6.2 Association between Gender and Other
Socio-Demographic Factors
Bivariate analysis began with the determination of
whether male and female employees in the sample dif-
fered in terms of their background characteristics (socio-
economic and demographic). The results (see Table 1)
indicate that males and females differed significantly in
many socio-economic and demographic characteristics.
It was found that males were significantly older than
females (p<0.001). A significantly higher proportion
(73.5%) of males was married, compared to 55.9 percent
of females. By contrast, 81.0 percent of the females were
citizens compared with about 51.9 percent of the males.
A significant proportion of males had acquired higher
educational qualifications than females (p<0.001). A
high percentage of the males (83.8%) had acquired a
Masters or doctorate degree compared to 53.7 percent of
the females. Other significant differences between men
and women were observed regarding number of years
working for the university, number of years working in
the current position, type of contract, and salary level.
The extent of satisfaction among males was signifi-
cantly higher than that among females difference was
further confirmed (p=0.014) when the level of satisfac-
tion was broken into the three ordinal categories used
throughout the study.
While 78.1 percent of the males were highly satisfied
with the type of job they did, 63.6 percent of the females
were highly satisfied with the type of work they did. Th is
indicated that males were more highly satisfied with the
type of work they did than females.
6.3 Bivariate Association between Gender and
Satisfaction
After identifying background factors that had a statisti-
cally significant relationship with gender, we adjusted
for their possible effects on the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction by including each one of
th em as a control or mitigating variable. Table 2 shows a
summary of results.
When controlling for age, a statistically significant as-
sociation between gender and satisfaction with the type
of work was observed only among middle-aged employ-
ees (p=0.023). While 81.0 percent of middle-aged males
were highly satisfied with the type of work they did, a
significantly lower percentage (63.0%) of middle-aged
females were highly satisfied.
The lack of any gender differences in satisfaction
among younger or older respondents meant that when ad-
justing for age, the association between gender and satis-
faction became non-significant statistically (p=0.051).
When controlling for the effects of marital status,
gender continued to be associated with satisfaction with
the type of work employees did (p=0.021). However, the
significant difference was found only between married
respondents (p=0.010) and not among single respondents
(p=0.599). The results show that while 82.9 percent of
married males were highly satisfied with the type of
work they did, a significantly lower proportion (64.5%)
of married females were highly satisfied. Similarly,
males were more likely to be highly satisfied than fe-
males when controlling for number of dependent children.
The difference was between men and women who had
three or more children (p=0.008).
When controlling for years of service to the univer-
sity, the relationship between gender and satisfaction
with the type of work employees did remained signifi-
cant (p=0.024).
The significant difference between male and female
respondents (p=0.006) was found among those with 10 or
more years of service. There were no significant differ-
ences between male and female respondents who had
worked for nine or fewer years at the university. Simi-
larly, a significant difference between males and females
(p=0.006) was found among th ose with 10 or mor e years
n their current position in the university.
2Multiple logistic regression is similar to the usual multiple linear re-
gression model, but is used when the dependent variable is dichoto-
mous instead of continuous. i

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 409
Evidence from the University of Botswana
Table 1. Association between gender and selected background variable s
percent Among
Socio-Demographic Factor Male Female Overall Chi-sq p-value
Age 20.5 <0.001
Young (34 years or less) 23.8 44.6 31.0
Middle (35 – 49 years) 50.2 44.6 48.5
Old (50 years and ab o ve ) 26.0 10.7 20.6
Marital 10.6 0.001
Single 26.5 44.1 32.1
Married 73.5 55.9 67.9
No. of Dep. Children 1.4 0.496
None 20.2 17.4 19.2
1-2 41.6 38.0 40.4
3 or more 38.2 44.6 40.4
Citizenship 28.5 <0.001
Citizens 51.9 81.0 61.9
Non Citizens 48.1 19.0 38.1
Education 52.7 <0.001
Doctorate 47.6 18.5 37.4
Masters 36.2 35.3 36.0
Post Graduate 2.2 3.4 2.6
Bachelors 7.9 11.8 9.4
Other 6.1 31.1 14.6
Years of Service in UB 8.7 0.013
0 - 3 years 35.5 24.2 31.4
4 - 9 37.2 53.3 43.1
10 or more 27.3 22.5 25.5
Year at Current Position 14.7 0.001
0 - 3 years 42.5 35.5 40.8
4 - 9 30.0 49.6 36.4
10 or more 27.5 14.9 22.8
Overall Working Experience 15.9 0.000
0 - 3 years 26.2 43.8 33.1
4 - 9 38.2 38.0 37.8
10 or more 35.6 18.2 29.2
Type of Contract 28.6 <0.001
Permanent & Pensionable 44.6 73.3 54.7
Fixed 2 yrs or more 49.8 20.8 39.7
Temporary Full Time 3.9 4.2 3.9
Other 1.7 1.7 1.7
Salary per month 23.4 <0.001
Low (P7000 or less) 29.1 54.6 37.9
Medium (P7001 – P11,000) 43.6 32.8 39.9
High (11,001 and above) 27.3 12.6 22.3

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 410 Evidence from the University of Botswana
Table 2. Association between gender and satisfaction with the type of work respondents did, controlling for background variables
Level of Satisfaction
High Moderate
percent Among percent Among
Association between
gender and Satisfaction
within each category
Overall Association Con-
trolling for factor
Factor Controlled for
Male Female Male FemaleChi-sq p-value Chi-sq p-value
Age 3.8 0.051
Young 63.6 59.3 29.1 29.6 0.4 0.517
Middle 81.0 63.0 14.7 29.6 5.2 0.023
Old 86.7 84.6 10.0 15.4 0.0 0.924
Marital 5.3 0.021
Single 64.4 61.2 30.5 30.6 0.3 0.599
Married 82.9 64.5 12.2 27.4 6.6 0.010
Children 7.7 0.006
None 70.2 66.7 25.5 33.3 0.0 0.959
1-2 78.4 63.0 15.5 28.3 2.7 0.100
3 or more 82.0 63.0 14.6 25.9 7.0 0.008
Citizenship 3.4 0.067
Citizens 72.7 59.2 19.8 32.7 2.8 0.097
Non Citizens 83.9 82.6 14.3 8.7 0.6 0.440
Education 0.266
Doctorate 85.3 72.7 10.1 18.2 1.9 0.168
Masters 75.9 83.3 18.1 16.7 1.9 0.174
Below MA 62.2 47.3 35.1 38.2 3.5 0.060
Years at UB 5.1 0.024
0 – 3 years 81.7 69.0 13.4 27.6 1.0 0.327
4 – 9 67.4 64.1 27.9 29.7 0.3 0.609
10 or more 87.3 59.3 7.9 25.9 7.5 0.006
Year at Post 6.3 0.012
0 – 3 years 77.8 67.4 17.2 27.9 0.9 0.330
4 – 9 72.9 63.3 21.4 28.3 1.3 0.262
10 or more 84.4 55.6 12.5 27.8 7.7 0.006
Type of Contract 3.3 0.068
Pensionable 71.8 58.0 20.4 34.1 2.3 0.127
Contract 83.5 84.0 15.7 4.0 1.1 0.299
Salary Level 4.1 0.042
Low 68.2 53.9 25.8 35.4 2.8 0.093
Medium 77.8 82.1 18.2 15.4 0.4 0.551
High 90.3 53.3 4.8 33.3 8.0 0.005

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do:
Evidence from the University of Botswana
411
Table 3. Association between gender and satisfaction with the type of work respondents did, controlling for characteristics of
the work environ ment
Level of Satisfaction
High Moderate
percent Among percent Among
Association between
gender and Satisfaction
within each category
Overall Association
Controlling for factor
Factor Controlled for
Male Female Male Female Chi-sq p-value Chi-sq p-value
Adequacy of technology
4.9 0.027
Agree 81.9 71.0 14.2 22.6 2.9 0.091
Disagree 70.1 58.2 23.4 30.9 2.1 0.150
Feeling Misplaced
3.9 0.049
Agree 58.3 28.0 29.2 48.0 3.8 0.051
Disagree 80.4 73.7 15.8 22.1 1.21 0.271
Teaching takes time for research
0.6 0.427
Agree 82.0 75.0 13.2 23.2 0.3 0.611
Disagree 66.7 62.9 27.1 25.7 0.4 0.532
Tribalism in recruitment & promotion
4.5 0.034
Agree 63.2 56.5 26.3 34.8 0.1 0.717
Disagree* 81.0 66.7 15.8 25.0 6.29 0.012
Making a valued contribution
6.3 0.012
Agree* 78.9 62.9 18.1 29.9 8.9 0.003
Disagree 66.7 61.9 12.5 23.8 0.0 0.939
Autonomy at work
6.3 0.012
Agree 79.9 67.0 17.5 28.6 5.1 0.024
Disagree 70.3 51.7 13.5 27.6 1.4 0.238
Level of supervision
7.8 0.005
Agree* 79.1 64.5 15.9 27.1 6.4 0.011
Disagree 75.0 57.1 20.8 35.7 1.4 0.230
Clarity of responsibilities 7.7 0.005
Agree* 85.7 69.7 13.1 27.0 9.5 0.002
Disagree 56.1 48.4 28.1 29.0 0.71 0.400
When controlling for the effects of salary level, gender
continued to be associated with satisfaction with the type
of work employees did (p=0.042). The significant dif-
ference (p=0.005) between male and female satisfaction
was among those with a high salary. While 90.3 percent
of males with a high salary were h ighly satisfied with the
type of work they did, only 53.3 percent of the females
with a high salary were highly satisfied with their work.
There were no significant differences in satisfaction be-
tween men and women wi th a low or m edium le vel sal ary.
Table 3 shows that the association between gender and
job satisfaction remained significant after controlling for
the differences in perceptions of aspects of the work en-
vironment. Males who exp erien ced autono my a t work were
significantly more satisfied with the type of work they
did than their female counterp arts (p=0.024). Other simi-
larly significant differences in the level of job satisfac-
tion between men and women were among those who fel t
that: they were making a valued contribution at work
(p=0.003); the level of supervision at work was adequate
(p=0.011); there was no tribalism in recruitment and
promotion (p=0.024); their job descriptions and respon-
sibilities were clear (p=0.002). Men and women who did
not perceive these positive aspects of the work environ-

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 412 Evidence from the University of Botswana
ment did not differ significantly in the level of satisfac-
tion with the type of work that th ey did.
Men tended to be more satisfied than women with the
type of work they did regardless of whether or not they
felt misplaced at work (p=0.051 for those feeling mis-
placed; p=0.271 for those who did not feel misplaced).
Similarly, men tended to be more satisfied than women
regardless of whether or not they felt that technology at
work was adequate (p=0.150 for those who felt that
technology was not adequate; p=0.091 for those who felt
that technology was adequate).
There were no significant differences in satisfaction
between men and women who felt that teaching did not
allow enough time for research (p=0.611) and between
men and women who felt that teaching allowed enough
time for research (p=0. 5 32 ).
Table 4 shows that the association between gender and
job satisfaction remained significant after controlling for
negative work experiences and sources of stress. Males
who often experienced stress from demands of work on
private life were more highly satisfied than females who
often experienced stress from demands of work on pri-
vate life (p=0.006).
Men were more satisfied with the type of work they
did regardless of whether they experienced racism or
tribalism (p=0.019 for those who often experienced racism
or tribalism; p=0.022 for those who did not often ex-
perienced racism or tribalism). Men also tended to be
more satisfied than women with the type of work they
did, whether or not they experienced xenophobia
(ove rall p=0.002).
Men and women who often had negative work ex-
periences had a similar level of satisfaction with the type
of work they did. Significant differences in satisfaction
were found among employees who did not often have
negative work experiences. For example, males who did
not often experience gender discrimination were signifi-
cantly more satisfied with the type o f work they did than
females who did not experience gender discrimination
(p=0.003). Other similarly significant gender differences
in the level of job satisfaction were among those who did
not experience: nepotism and favoritism (p=0.038); stress
from the immediate supervisors (p=0.001); stress from
domestic responsibilities (p=0.039); stress from relations
with subordin ates (p=0.005) an d stress from the inappro-
priateness of their qualification s (p=0.005 for moderately
inappropriate qualifications; p=0.032 for very inappro-
priate qualifications).
6.4 Estimating the Probability that an Employee
would be Satisfied Given Gender
The stepwise regression procedure was used to analyze
the observed differences in satisfaction with the type of
work that respondents did, when controlling for the po-
tential confounders simultaneously. The variables that
were removed by the stepwise regression procedure did
not significantly add to our ability to predict satisfaction
with the type of work respondents did (residual chi-
square statistic 26.7; p=0.370).The goodness of fit of the
proportional odds model was statistically significant
(Wald Chi-square=41.5; df=11; p<0.001 and the Score
Test statistic=10.5; d.f.=11; p=0.483). The estimates of
the final prediction model are given in Table 5.
The coefficient of gender in the proportional odds
model was not significant, which suggests that, when
modeling the effects of several variables simultaneously,
there were no significant differences in satisfaction with
the type of work that males and females did. The results
show that employees in the old age category were almost
3 times more likely to be satisfied with the type of work
they did than employees in the young age-group category
(Odds Ratio=2.8). Employees who felt that teaching did
not allow enough time for research were two-and-a-half
times (Odds Ratio=2.6) more likely to be satisfied with
the type of work they did than those who felt that teach-
ing allows enough time for research).
Employees who felt that the level of technology at
work was up to the standard it should be, were more than
twice as likely to be satisfied with the type of work they
did than those who felt that the level of technology at
work was below standard (Odds Ratio=2.4). Employees
who felt that there was equity in the distribution of the
work load in their departments were more than twice as
likely to be satisfied with the type of work they did than
those who felt that there was no equity in the distributio n
of the workload in their departments (Odds Ratio=2.3,
95percent confidence interval=(1.26, 4.38). Employees
who felt that they were underutilized were about 40% as
likely to be satisfied with the type of work they did as
those who felt that they were given enough to do at work
(Odds Ratio=0.4, 95percent confidence interval=(0.20,
0.73). Given the above factors, other variables, including
number of years in the organization, relations with sub-
ordinates, feeling misplaced at work, etc., were found not
to be important predictors of satisfaction with th e type of
work that employees did.
7. Discussions
This study sought to contribute to an understanding of
gender differences in job satisfaction. It builds on studies
that have found higher levels of job satisfaction among
male employees [4,5,7,56], studies that have found hig her
levels of job satisfaction among female employees
[13,16,17], and studies that have found no difference in
the levels of job satisfaction between male and female
employees [18,19].

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do:
Evidence from the University of Botswana
413
Table 4. Association between gender and satisfaction with the type of work respondents did, controlling for negative work
experiences & for sources of stress
Level of Satisfaction
High Moderate
percent Among percent Among
Association between
gender and Satisfaction
within each category
Overall Association
Controlling for factor
Factor Controlled for
Male Female Male Female Chi-sq p-value Chi-sq p-value
Racism and Tribalism 9.2 0.002
Often 74.4 33.3 18.6 50.0 5.6 0.019
Not Often 79.3 66.7 16.5 25.9 5.3 0.022
Xenophobia 5.3 0.022
Often 83.8 50.0 10.8 40.0 3.4 0.066
Not Often 77.2 67.3 18.1 25.0 3.2 0.074
Gender Discrimination 8.8 0.003
Often 83.3 81.3 16.7 6.3 0.2 0.629
Not Often 78.1 60.6 17.0 31.7 8.7 0.003
Nepotism and Favoritism 6.1 0.014
Often 63.2 48.5 29.0 36.4 1.8 0.183
Not Often 81.0 68.6 15.3 25.6 4.3 0.038
Immediate Supervisor 4.3 0.038
Often 50.0 65.2 22.7 21.7 1.5 0.221
Not Often 81.0 63.8 16.7 29.8 10.5 0.001
Domestic Responsibilities 6.4 0.011
Often 73.0 50.0 17.2 36.7 2.2 0.141
Not Often 79.2 68.6 17.7 24.4 4.2 0.039
Demands of Work on Private Life 6.7 0.010
Often 97.1 44.1 14.0 41.2 7.5 0.006
Not Often 78.0 71.4 18.3 22.6 1.5 0.221
Relations with Subordinates 9.9 0.002
Often 70.0 42.9 20.0 42.9 2.1 0.144
Not Often 80.4 65.4 15.9 26.9 7.7 0.005
Appropriateness of Qualifications 4.5 0.034
High 79.9 82.5 15.9 14.3 0.2 0.619
Medium 72.7 44.7 25.5 47.4 7.8 0.005
Low 88.9 33.3 0.0 38.9 4.6 0.032
Medium 77.8 82.1 18.2 15.4 0.4 0.551
High 90.3 53.3 4.8 33.3 8.0 0.005

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 414 Evidence from the University of Botswana
Table 5. Maximum likelihood estimates of the logistic model for satisfaction with the type of work employees do
Parameter Estimate
Standard
Error Wald Chi-Square* P-value Odds Ratio
95percent CI for odds
Ratio
Intercept 1 -0.102 0.52 3 0.04 0.846
Intercept 2 1.892 0.562 11329.00 0.0 01
Gender -0.041 0.340 0.02 0.903 1.0 0.5 1.9
Age
Middle age 0.580 0.351 2.74 0.098 1.8 0.9 3.5
Old age 1.025 0.489 4.39 0.036 2.8 1.1 7.3
Length of Service
Worked for 4 to 9 year s at UB -0.603 0.363 2.75 0.097 0.5 0.3 1.1
Worked at least 10 years at UB-0.562 0.455 1.53 0.217 0.6 0.2 1.4
Stress from Relations with
subordinates 0.524 0.551 0.90 0.342 1.7 0.6 5.0
Feeling technology is up to
standard 0.886 0.314 7.95 0.005 2.4 1.3 4.5
Feeling under utilized -0.969 0.337 8.28 0.004 0.4 0.2 0.7
Feeling misplaced in depart-
ment -0.544 0.425 1.63 0.201 0.6 0.3 1.3
Feeling equity in distribution
of workload 0.854 0.317 7.24 0.007 2.3 1.3 4.4
Teaching does not allow time
for research 0.938 0.339 7.63 0.006 2.6 1.3 5.0
The study investigated the level of satisfaction with the
type of work that male and female employees of a univer-
sity did; and sought to explain any differences found.
Analyses began by exploring the bivariate association
between gender and satisfaction with the type of work
respondents did, and was improved by adopting condi-
tional and multivariate analyses that shed more light on
the initial association. The study has shown that altho ugh
the majority of university employees in the sample were
highly satisfied with the type of work that they did, males
were significantly more satisfied than females.
The study has also shown that male and female em-
ployees differ in terms of many factors that affect em-
ployee satisfaction such as age, marital statu s, citizenship,
years of service at the institution, and so on. In order to
gain more understanding of the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction, it was importan t to determine
and then control for these factors in the analyses. This ap-
proach provided greater insight into the differences b etwe en
males and females with certain background characteris-
tics. For example, middle-aged males were more satisfied
with the type of work they did than middle-aged females.
Married males were more satisfied with their jobs than
married f emales. But there w ere no differen ces in job satis-
faction between single males and single females. Males
who had 3 or more dependent children were more likely
to be satisfied than women who had 3 or more dependent
children. Males with a high salary were more satisfied w it h
the type of work they did th an females with a h igh salary.
Males who had worked for 10 or more years at the
university were more satisfied with their jobs than women
who had worked for the same number of years. This is
consistent with findings that workers with less than ten
years of work experience have less job satisfaction than
those with ten or more years [38]. It is also consistent
with studies that have found that job satisfaction in-
creases progressively with length of service [16,57].
Controlling for work environment variables, negative
experiences at work and for sources of stress enabled for
a deeper understanding of how a positive or negative work
environment and work experiences could affect male and
female employees differently. It was observed that fe-
male employees tended to be less satisfied than males
regardless of whether or not they: experienced racism,
tribalism or xenophobia; felt misplaced at work; or felt
that technology at work was inadequate. It was also ob-
served that females who experienced certain positive as-
pects of the work environment were significantly less

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 415
Evidence from the University of Botswana
satisfied with their jobs than their male counterparts.
These positive experiences included: autonomy at work;
making a valued contribution; adequate level of supervi-
sion; lack of tribalism in recruitment and promotion; and
having clearly spelt ou t job descriptions and respons ibili-
ties. Men and women who perceived or experienced these
positive aspects of the work environment had a similar
level of satisfaction wit h the type of work t hey di d.
The study identified certain negative work-related ex-
periences that affected job satisfaction. These negative ex-
periences included: gender discrimination; nepotism and
favoritism; stress from the immediate supervisor; stress
from domestic responsibilities; stress from relations with
subordinates; and stress from the inappropriateness of o n e’ s
qualifications. Men and women who often had any of
these negative experiences had a similar level of satisfac-
tion with the type of wo rk they did. Thus positive asp ects
of the work environment as well as negative (stressful)
experiences had similar effects on male and female satis-
faction with the type of work they did. Only one negative
work experience was associated with females being less
satisfied with their jobs than males. Females who often
experienced stress from demands of work on private life
were less satisfied than their male counterparts.
Multivariate analyses, using the likelihood ratio criteria,
showed that age-group was the most important predictor
of satisfaction with the type of work that respondents did.
This i s consisten t with sev eral stud ies that fo u nd t ha t o ld er
workers were more satisfied with their jobs than younger
workers [7,57,58]. Other important factors in the multi-
variate model involved aspects of the work itself. Re-
spondents who felt that teaching did not allow enough
time for research were significantly more likely to be
satisfied with the type of work they did than those who
did not perceive conflict between teaching and research
responsibilities. Perhaps those who were actively in-
volved in both teaching and research experienced the
competition for time, energy and effort between the two
activities of a practicing academic. Such employees would
have had an understanding of the importance of research
and teaching in the university value and reward systems
and may have been rewarded for successfully juggling
the two very important aspects of academic life, which is
a prerequisite for liking an academic job.
The model further shows that employees who took ad-
vantage of technological advancement derived higher
satisfaction with the type of work they did. Similarly,
employees who experienced equity in the distribution of
the workload in their departments were generally more
satisfied with their jobs. Those who did not have much to
do at work (i.e. those who felt under-utilized) derived less
satisfaction with the type of work they did than those
who had adeq uate work to do, regardless of whether th ey
were male or female.
8. Conclusions
Job satisfaction is an important factor for any organiza-
tion to achieve among its employees. It should help to
maintain stability and productivity in the operations of
academic institutions and of other organizations. Dissat-
isfaction with work has been linked to absenteeism, poor
performance and staff turnover at United Kingdom uni-
versities [59]. It may lead to stress and ultimately to burnout
if allowed to continue unabated [60]. It is, therefore, im-
portant for university managers and policy makers to
identify factors that they can address in order to improve
levels of job satisfaction among their workers.
This study addressed the question whether gender can
help predict or determine employee satisfaction with the
type of work they do. Bivariate analysis suggest that
gender is an important factor that affects levels of job
satisfaction, and should therefore be taken seriously by
managers. Conditional analysis based on adding one control
variable at a time shed further light on the relationship
between gender and job satisfaction by specifying the
conditions under which men and women have different
levels of satisfaction. Multivariate analysis showed that
gender ranked lower than many other factors in explain-
ing the level of satisfaction with the type of work that
university employees did, and the final model did not
include gender as a predictive variable.
The most parsimonious model of satisfaction with the
type of work that university employees did included the
following five predictive attributes: 1) be longing to an ol de r
age group; 2) understanding the competing demands of
teaching and research responsibilities; 3) taking advan-
tage of technological advancement at work; 4) perceiving
equity in the distribution of the workload; 5) feeling that
one has enough to do at work. Once the above five fac-
tors are given, gender and other variables, including indi-
vidual background characteristics, measures of personal health
and well-being, attributes of the home environment, a t t ri bu t es
of the work environment, characteristics of the job itself,
and level of job commitment that have been found to be
associated with job satisfaction in this and other studies,
were no longer important predictors of satisfaction with
the type of work that employees do in a university.
The study has made a contribution to research method-
ology by illustrating that conclusions based on bivariate
analyses alone have some limitations. Thus while man-
agers should con tinue to be sensitive to the importance of
gender differences in the workplace, they should be
aware that other factors, which they can control or have
influence over, determine whether or not employees are
satisfied with the type of work that they do, and need to
be addressed. Policies aimed at improving job satisfaction
should, among other things, ensure that the distribution of
the workload is transparent and equitable. Supervisors
should regularly evaluate the workload of those who

Gender Differences in Satisfaction with the Type of Work University Employees Do: 416 Evidence from the University of Botswana
work under their leadership and ensure that they are not
under-utilized or overworked.
This study has several limitations. First, since the study
used a cross-section and correlation design that identified
significant associations, it cannot be used to make causal
inferences among variables. Future studies should adopt
longitudinal designs that that would enable cause and e ff e ct
inferences to be drawn. Second, the study relied on self-
reporting and not observations of behavior or in-depth in-
terviews. This reduces the ability to interpret observed
associations between variables and improve understanding
of the findings. While the findings are interesting, gener-
alizations to university employees and to other professional
groups must be investigated further or made with caveats.
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