Trace Elemental Analysis in Epileptic Children

doi:10.4236/ojapps.2013.38056

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Open Journal of Applied Sciences, 2013, 3, 449-476

Published Online December 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojapps)

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2013.38056

Open Access OJAppS

Trace Elemental Analysis in Epileptic Children

S. Kumar1, V. Kumar1, Reena Mittal2, D. C. Jain3

1Department of Physics, Medical Physics Research Laboratory, D.A.V. (P.G.) College, Muzaffar Nagar, India

2Department of Mathematics, Shri K.K. Jain College, Muzaffar Nagar, India

3Department of Neurology, Safdarganj Hospital, New Delhi, India

Email: sanjeev1962kumar@yahoo.co.in, sanjeev1962kumar@rediffmail.com, v_05kumar@rediffmail.com,

reena_math@rediffmail.com, neuro_dc@hotmail.com

Received March 30, 2013; revised May 2, 2013; accepted May 10, 2013

permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In accordance of

ABSTRACT

We have measured trace elements in epileptic patients. Levels of trace elements are very fluctuating in comparison to

the healthy controls. The levels of Zn, Fe and Cu are higher in comparison to healthy normal children about 64%, 55%

and 33% respectively. The levels of Cu are just fifty percent to levels of Zn. The levels of Ca, K and Mg are higher

about 10%, 9.027% and 4.2% in comparison to normal children. Sodium levels were very low in comparison to all the

trace elements and are higher about 3.2% than controls. The multiple correlation coefficients between Na, K and Ca, i.e.

() has a value 0.4993 in comparison to healthy children. Multiple correlation coefficients between Fe, Cu and

Zn, i.e. () has a value 0.4366. The multiple correlation coefficients and are found lower.

These elements were strongly correlated with other. The multiple correlation coefficients such as , ,

, , , and were also evaluated and found on higher side from normal range.

Trace elements may act as a catalytic agent for enzyme system of the cells. The minimum requirements of living objects

for essential trace elements may be expressed in proportions or concentrations of the total dry food taken everyday. A

tolerance of the human system may be fluctuated according to intake of these elements.

Na.KCa

Mg.NaK

Fe.CuZn

Na.MgK

Na.KCa

RFe.CuZn

K.NaCa

RCa.K.Na

K.MgNa

RCu.FeZn

RZn.FeCu

Keywords: Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS); Grand-Mal Epilepsy (GME); Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF);

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Serum

1. Introduction

We know that minerals are important to our health. Min-

erals are inorganic chemical elements, which are not at-

tached with carbon atom. It is very easy to differentiate

between minerals and trace minerals. These trace miner-

als are called trace elements. If the human body accepts

more than 100 milligram of 11 minerals each day, this

substance is labeled a mineral. If the cellular body re-

quires less than this requirement then it is labeled a trace

mineral.

Trace minerals (elements) are needed in quantities of

only a few milligrams or micrograms per day. Study of

relationships of minerals with human health is important.

If we balance the level of minerals in every organ, tissue

and cell of the human body can be presumed that we are

mintaining a good health.

Minerals comprise only a fraction of total bodyweight.

These are crucial for many body functions. These include

transporting oxygen, normalizing the central nervous

system (CNS) and simulating growth, maintenance and

repair of tissues and bones [1].

It has been noticed that the regulation of trace ele-

ments balance in the body is essential to survival. Each

cell is a living organism and we must try to maintain its

internal environment. The movement of trace elements

across cell membranes, between the extra-cellular and

intra-cellular fluid forms the basis for the body’s most

primary functions. Electrical activity may be initiated;

heart beats, nerve cells signal, muscles may respond,

blood vessels may tighten or relax. Water balance should

be maintained [2].

It has been reported in the literature that most of the

trace elements found in the tissues and body fluids are

also present in the blood [3]. Many of the metallic ele-

S. KUMAR ET AL.

450

ments have a specific metabolic function and the pres-

ence of these is not merely the result of contamination

from our environment. Biologically active trace elements

produce their effects through enzyme systems. Metal-

loenzymes and metal protein complexes are the two sys-

tems. Metalloenzymes have a fixed amount of specific

metallic ion per molecule of protein addition of an agent,

which binds the metal and inactivates the enzymes.

Metal-protein complexes are larger group of proteins

loosely bound to metal. Metals may substitute for each

other with fluctuating degrees of affinity and they can be

removed by the process of dialysis. Some of these com-

plexes may have enzymatic activity only. Rests of these

are concerned with transportation process only. Chelation

affects these two types of activity of enzymes. The es-

sential metals at trace levels play a role in the human

body and can cause some diseases when present beyond

the limit of normal concentration [4,5].

Several minerals exist in living tissues in such small

quantities that in the past, it was not possible to measure

their precise concentrations with the analytical methods

available at that time. That is why these elements were

mentioned as occurring in traces and the term trace ele-

ment was coined to describe such elements. The term has

been in vogue, in spite of the fact that levels of almost all

the trace elements can be measured with a very high de-

gree of precision.

Trace elements occur in the tissue of animals, plants

and micro-organisms in low concentrations. The concen-

trations of these elements change highly among many

elements. Their concentrations are also different among

various living organisms and their parts. These differ-

ences are also seen in nutritionally essential elements and

also in those elements which are associated with no vital

function.

Trace elements have divergent roles to play depending

upon their chemical form or combination and their posi-

tion in the body tissues and fluids. The functional forms

of the trace elements and their characteristic concentra-

tions ought to be maintained with narrow limits if the

functional and structural integrity of the tissues is to be

safeguard and the growth, health and fertility of the indi-

vidual have to be unaffected. Continued ingestion of di-

ets that are deficient, imbalanced, or excessively high in

a particular trace element invariably induces changes in

the functioning forms activities, or amount of these ele-

ments in the tissue or fluids, so that they fall below, or

rise above the normal and permissible limits or ranges. In

these situations, biochemical disturbances develop, phy-

siological functions are influenced and structural disor-

ders may arise in ways which change with elements. The

degree and duration of the dietary deficiency or toxicity,

age, sex and species are important factors associated with

the trace elements [6].

1.1. Deposition of Trace Elements in the Human

Body

Food is the basic necessity of life of a living organism.

Everybody eats food whether it is vegetarian or non-

vegetarian. Scientists were very curious about the food

they consumed. Food passes in the body and affects the

body. Food is the substance taken into the body that will

help to meet the body’s need for energy. It helps in main-

taining good health, growth health, growth and repro-

duction.

A large number of minerals and trace elements are

circulating in the human body. Some of these elements

form part of body structural component and some others

act as catalytic agents in different body reactions. Bones

and skeleton are made up of calcium, magnesium and

phosphorus and iron, which are components of blood.

Minerals like zinc, molybdenum, copper, manganese and

magnesium are either a structural part or activate a large

number of enzyme systems. Iodine is a part of hormone,

thyroxin. Sodium, potassium are important elements

present in fluids within the outside the cells and along

with ions like chloride, bicarbonate and carbonate keep

water and acid base balance. If we see the case of grow-

ing infant and children, intake of additional amount of

several minerals are essential to ensure adequate growth

of tissues.

Every person absorbs minerals in a slightly different

way, called biochemical individuality. Those nutrients

that have not been transferred through the intestinal mu-

cosal cell to enter the circulation have no meaning re-

garding the study of the elements. The variety of nutri-

ents from organism’s environment that have been made

available by absorption must be transported through the

circulatory system to the aqueous microenvironment of

the cells. They may serve the purpose of participation in

different metabolic processes in the cells on which the

life of the total organism depends.

The absorption of minerals is dependent on many dif-

ferent factors related to the mechanism of human body. It

has been reported somewhere in the literature that the

addition of vitamins and minerals to food can be effec-

tive public health intervention to correct inadequate in-

take of nutrients in both the general society [7].

1.2. Different Kinds of Trace Elements in the

Human Body

There are ninety two elements found in nature. We have

some additional twenty two elements also. It has been

reported in the literature that there are hundreds of iso-

topes of the elements exist. We may say the any one of

which may play an undiscovered role in human health.

We are presenting a table here to understand the exact

percentage of the trace elements found in the nature as

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 451

Table 1.

It has been established somewhere else in the literature

that through geophysical forces, mixing of the earth’s

crust with water may provide virtually every mineral for

our body, which requires to maintain health. The water is

compatable with more substances that any other known

solvent [8]. It is an ideal medium for transporting nutri-

ents in the cells for the chemical reactions of cellular

metabolism to take place.

Our body contains lots of elements out of 25 are di-

vided into mainly three categories such as major, minor

components and trace elements.

The major components which make up 96% of human

body are composed of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hy-

drogen. It has been established that major elements found

in the biological molecules such as proteins, nucleic ac-

ids, fats and carbohydrates and are capable to make-up

the body. Hydrogen ions are very important for our cells

to make ATP or energy. Water is also a medium for all

the chemical reactions taken place in the human body.

Water is a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen atoms [9].

Minor components make up 4% of our body. They

may include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, so-

dium, chlorine and magnesium. Some of these are nec-

essary for chemical processes to run correctly. Our mus-

cles need calcium in order to twitch properly. Enough

calcium is required by body.

Table 1. Elements found in the earth’s crust, ocean and at-

mosphere.

S. No. Type of element Place where found Percentage

1 Oxygen Earth crust 46.50

2 Oxygen Ocean 85.79

3 Oxygen Atmosphere 20.95

4 Silica Earth crust 28.00

5 Aluminium Earth crust 8.10

6 Iron Earth crust 5.10

7 Calcium Earth crust 3.50

8 Sodium Earth crust 3.00

9 Sodium Ocean 1.14

10 Potassium Earth crust 2.50

11 Magnesium Earth crust 2.20

12 Magnesium Ocean 0.14

13 Titanium Earth crust 0.50

14 Chloride Ocean 2.07

15 Nitrogen Atmosphere 78.08

16 Argon Atmosphere 0.93

17 Carbon dioxide Atmosphere 3.03

18 Neon Atmosphere 0.0018

19 Helium Atmosphere 0.0005

20 Krypton Atmosphere 0.0001

21 Hydrogen Ocean 10.67

22 Hydrogen Atmosphere 0.00005

Trace elements make up 0.1% of our body. They in-

clude copper, zinc, selenium, molybdenum, fluorine,

iodine, manganese, cobalt, iron, lithium, strontium, alu-

minum, silicon, lead, vanadium, arsenic and bromine.

These elements are necessary for our body to function

properly.

Zumkley, H. [10] stated that clinical experimental and

epidemiological studies indicate that a large number of

trace elements may be involved in the etiology of differ-

ent human body disorders. Both increased levels of any

trace element or reverse of this can influence the devel-

opment of disease.

1.3. Effects of Trace Elements on Human Health

and Why Do We Need to Get Analysis of

Trace Elements

To understand the effects of trace elements on human

health is very complex in nature and fascinating. High

concentrations of the elements may prove toxic. The de-

pletion in the concentration of essential trace elements

may cause so many different metabolic instabilities due

to dysfunction of enzyme. Many metabolic changes in

human body are accompanied by changes made in the

concentration of one or more trace elements in some

body fluids, such as blood serum or plasma.

It is very important to update ourselves with different

techniques available for such type of determinations.

Their operational aspects, advantages and disadvantages,

etc. are important to understand also.

Trace elemental analysis from human hair, nails, body

fluids such as plasma, serum and cerebrospinal fluid has

been stated in the literature as the best predicator.

1.4. Role of Trace Elements in Human Body with

a Detailed Description

Indian saint Swami Dayanand Saraswati quoted some-

where else in the literature “anything consumed in ex-

cess is poison”. By the beautiful quotation we can esti-

mate our body in terms of trace elemental analysis and

can assure the excess of one element may cause a diverse

effect on the body. The role of trace elements may play

an important role in human beings.

We may present a detail description regarding trace

elemental effect on human body with an impact of defi-

ciency of trace element may cause a serious disease. It is

planned to discuss some of the trace elements in detailed

and descriptive knowledge of few elements. These are

copper, zinc, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and po-

tassium. We are familiar with all these elements. We

have a suitable position of these elements in the periodic

table. We shall discuss each and every element in detail.

1.4.1. C opp er

The presence of copper in animals and plants is very es-

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452

sential. Copper is most abundant trace element in human

beings. This element is carried mostly in the bloodstream

on a plasma protein. We may call it is ceruloplasmin.

Copper is firstly absorbed in the gut and transported to

the liver bound to albumin. This trace element is found in

a variety of enzymes, including the copper centre of cy-

tochrome C oxidase.

Our body needs copper for normal growth and health.

It is said that copper is required to help the body use to

iron. Copper is very important for nerve function, bone

growth and to help body use sugar. This element is a

component of a co-factor for different enzymes. Ap-

proximately, these enzymes are fifty in number and re-

quire copper to function properly.

It is an essential nutrient, which plays an important

role in the production of haemoglobin, myelin, collagen

and melanin. This element works with vitamin C also to

help in making a component of connective tissues known

as elastin. It is a critical functional component of a num-

ber of essential enzymes. These enzymes are cupro-en-

zymes. Copper is an essential component of the natural

dark pigment and melanin. This melanin is needed to

colour the skin, hair and eyes. The cupro-enzyme, ty-

rosinase, is required for the formation of pigment mela-

nin. Melanin is formed in cells called melanocytes and

plays a role in the pigmentation of hair, skin and eyes.

This element is a strong antioxidant. It works together

with an antioxidant enzyme, superoxide dismutase (SOD),

to protect cell membranes from being destroyed by free

radicals. Copper is needed to make adenosine triphos-

phate (ATP), which is required to run the body.

Copper may play a role in staving off heart, rhythm

disorders and high blood pressure. The anti-inflammatory

actions of the copper may help in reducing arthiritis

symptoms. Many important oxidation reduction reactions

in the body are catalyzed by copper. It helps the forma-

tion of water from the free hydrogen and oxygen present

in the cells. The catalytic action of copper reduces the

impact of this reaction. This reaction could be explosive

if the copper is absent. The sense of taste, which is gen-

erated in the human tongue is influenced completely by

the presence of copper. Copper must be available in suf-

ficient amount in the human body to allow for the full

utilization of iron. The absorption of iron into the body is

stimulated by copper.

On an average, a young person requires one hundred

to one hundred fifty milligram of copper daily. Copper in

higher concentration is found in liver, hair, muscle and

lung [11]. Absorbed copper is firstly attached to plasma

albumin and then taken by the liver. It is released after

the elapsed of time and bound to specific copper-carrying

protein ceruloplasmin. Copper is an important compo-

nent of so many metalloenzymes including cytochrome C

oxidase. Copper absorption and retention depends on the

chemical forms in which the metal is ingested, the die-

tary levels of other minerals and organic substances, and

the acidity of the intestinal contents in the absorptive area.

The mechanism of absorption of copper is not known and

is still an open question.

Copper in the plasma is bound to serum albumin re-

versibly. It forms direct reacting pool of plasma. Copper

and it is distributed widely to the tissues. The copper-

albumin serum pool receives copper from tissues. Copper

in ceruloplasmin does not appear to be so readily avail-

able for exchange or transfer. Small amount of fraction

of serum copper is ultrafiltrable and consists of copper,

i.e., free and another small fraction that is liganded to the

amino acids.

The copper reaching the liver is incorporated into the

mitochondria, microsomes, nuclei and soluble fraction of

the parenchymall cells in proportions that vary with the

age, the strain and copper status of human beings.

Only a small amount of copper approximately 10 to 60

µg is excreted in urine daily in human. Negligible

amount of copper are lost in the process of sweat. During

the menstrual cycle 0.5 mg of copper may be lost in fe-

males. This loss may account for less than 0.02 mg/day

negative balance in females who are in their reproductive

phase of life.

The adult human beings contain 80 mg of copper.

Newborn child has 4.7 part per million (ppm) and very

young people contain more copper per unit of body

weight than adults-approximately 1.7 ppm. A total of 23

mg in the liver, heart, spleen, kidneys, brain and blood of

normal healthy subjects. Of this total, 8 mg may present

in the liver and surprisingly, 8 mg in the brain. Highly

variable concentration of copper occurs in the tissue of

all human beings. The glands such as prostate, pituitory,

thyroid and thymus are examples of tissues, which con-

tain low copper; spleen, pancreas, muscles, skin, and

bones contain intermediate concentrations of copper and

the liver, brain, kidneys, heart and hair are tissues, which

have high concentration of copper. It has been reported

in the literature very specifically that variation of copper

levels with age, the brain is the only organ in which the

concentration increases from birth to about double the

level at the age of maturity, i.e., 25 years. Exceptionally

high concentration of copper occurs in the pigmented

parts of the eye.

High liver copper concentrations are the indicator of a

number of diseases of human beings. These diseases in-

clude thalasemia, hemochromatosis, cirrhosis and yellow

atrophy of the liver, tuberculosis, carcinoma and severe

chronic diseases accompanied by anemia, etc.

The copper in blood plasma occurs in two forms 1)

firmly bound to cerlouplasmin and 2) reversibly bound to

albumin. Plasma copper does not increase following

meals or decrease during fasting. Serum copper levels

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 453

increases in women who are taking oral contraceptives.

Pregnant women have an elevated level of copper in

comparison to healthy controls.

1.4.2. Zinc

The role of zinc in human subject as a nutritional point of

view has been great importance to the research scientists

in the field of Biophysics and Biochemistry for the past

so many years. The importance has also established. Zinc

is a necessary trace metal of suitable importance in the

dietary management of many human body complex dis-

orders. A young person has 3 gm of zinc. A calculation

shows that this is approximately half of the body iron,

but ten to fifteen times greater than copper. This trace

element is found in all our cells. This element is essential

for all forms of life. Many proteins contain structures

called zinc fingers may help to regulate genes. The dis-

tribution of zinc in human tissues is well documented in

the literature. Liver, kidney, bone, retina, prostate and

muscle appear to be very rich in zinc.

It has been reported in the literature that zinc in RBC

is ten times that of plasma and in human serum is 16%

higher than plasma. The higher content of zinc in serum

has also been attributed to the liberation of zinc from the

platelets during the process of clotting and to invisible

hemolysis of red cells. The estimation of zinc in plasma

of healthy controls has been studied by many scientists

and found good in agreement. Plasma zinc levels in the

new born child are in the same as in adults. The metal-

loenzyme carbonic anhydrase is a zinc containing en-

zyme. It is well documented that there are more than 80

other enzymes found, which possesses zinc including

alkaline phosphate and alcohol dehydrogenease. The

very high zinc content in the retina arises due to the met-

allo-enzyme retenene reductase, which sets up a relation-

ship between the metabolism of vitamin A and zinc.

Carbohydrate metabolism and DNA-synthesis require

zinc. Most of the red cells zinc is tightly bound to en-

zyme carbonic anhydrase. It is exchangeable with plasma

zinc. Whole of plasma zinc is found with proteins. Sixty

percent zinc is bound to albumin, thirty percent is bound

with alpha 2 macroglobulin and the remainder with low

molecular weight proteins including amino acids [12].

The binding of zinc to amino acids and serum protein

was studied by Prasad, A.S. et al. [13]. Histidine, gluta-

mine, threonine, cystine and lysine showed the most

markable effects. The amino-acid-bound fraction of zinc

may have an important role in biological transport of zinc.

The stable zinc content is higher in albumin fraction.

Similar concentrations of zinc were found in the α-, β-

and γ-globulins. These are fraction of immunoglobulin G.

It is well established that zinc is a constituent of a

number of metalloenzymes. Due to the property of col-

ours, iron and copper enzymes have been recognized for

some time. zinc metalloenzymes have emerged few years

back. Kelin, D. et al. [14] have shown the first demon-

stration of a specific biological function critically de-

pendent on the presence of zinc. They have also shown

that carbonic anhydrase contains zinc and it is essential

to the mechanism of action.

Riordan, J.F. et al. [15] have reported in the literature

that there are more than seventy zinc metalloenzymes.

Zinc metalloenzymes exhibit diversity both of catalytic

function and of the role played by the metal atom.

Chemical stability may be an aspect of the utilization

of zinc in diverse biological processes such as hydrolysis,

transfer, and addition to double bonds and even oxidore-

duction. Role of zinc in redox enzymes is not acceptable

to donate or accept electrons.

A zinc metalloenzyme may be defined as a catalyti-

cally active metalloprotein containing stoichiometric

amounts of zinc firmly bound at its active site. The metal

atoms are so tightly bound that they do not dissociate

from the protein during the isolation procedure. When

the metal is not tightly bound, the association is chemi-

cally and functionally more tenuous and the destination

metallo-enzyme are complex. The metal in zinc metal-

loenzymes participate in the actual catalytic process. One

may speculate that the level of zinc in cells controls the

physiological processes through the formation of regula-

tion of activity, or both of zinc-dependint enzymes. Be-

sides the bone and the intestine, the kidneys and stomach

may also have reduced activity of alkaline phosphatase in

zinc deficiency. In tissues such as blood, stomach and

intestine in which carbonic anhydrase has a major func-

tional role, reduced activities have been well established.

It is evident that zinc in small quantities is present in

various cell membranes. Most of the membrane-bound

zinc is linked to a distinct macromolecule constituent

lipoprotein fraction.

The effect of zinc and other metals on aggregation of

platelets and release of H3 serotonin activated either by

collagen or epinephrine [16].

The interaction of zinc with calcium on the red cell

membrane was discovered. The effect of manganese ion,

which was shown to displace Ca++, thus modifying func-

tions of the platelet membrane. Plasma zinc levels in the

new born are in the same range as in the adults. It has

been reported somewhere in the literature that the level

of zinc falls to just below adult level within the first week

of life. This continues till the next 90 days. This level

reached finally to the adult level at the 4 months of age.

At the age above sixty years, the plasma zinc values

goes down. The use of predialyzed albumin, haptoglobin,

ceruloplasmin, α-macroglobulin, transferrin and IgG, in-

cubated with Zn, revealed that zinc was bound to all

these proteins, and that the binding of zinc to IgG was

electrostatic in nature.

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Only a small percentage of ingested dietary zinc is

absorbed. Absorption is difficult to ascertain precisely,

and intake-output studies are well documented. The nu-

tritional status of zinc in infants and young children has

been very limited.

In addition to vomiting, the symptoms of zinc toxicity

in human beings may include dehydration, electrolyte

imbalance, abdominal pain, nausea, lethargy, dizziness,

and muscular in-coordination. If the person takes zinc

chloride in suitable amount of dosage, the chances of

renal failure may be ceased. The daily dosage of zinc in

man is admissible from 15 - 30 mg. It is well established

that zinc and copper compete with each other for similar

protein binding sites. One thing is to be noted that one

may induce copper compete with each other for similar

protein binding sites. One thing is to be noted that one

may induce copper deficiency in subjects receiving high

amount of zinc for several months.

A syndrome of iron deficiency anaemia, hepatospleno-

megaly and dwarfism has been found to be associated

with malfunctioning of zinc metabolism [17]. Though

this represents a human zinc deficiency syndrome, defi-

nite conclusions may be complicated because other nutri-

tional deficiencies also exist in such type of patients.

Orthopaedic and central nervous system (CNS) have

relatively slow zinc uptake. This element remains tightly

attached for a lengthy span of time. The deficiency of

zinc leads to growth retardation or failure, lesions of the

skin and its appendages, and impaired reproductive de-

velopment and function. Psychological disturbances are

reported in individuals suffering from acrodermatitis

en-teropathic [18]. Zinc induced deficiencies in human

beings have been associated with neurological symptoms

such as depression, poor concentration, nervousness and

moodiness [19]. Deresti, I.F. et al. [20]. have studied the

hippocampus, which is rich in zinc. Zinc deficiency is

associated with learning and memory defects similar to

behaviour syndromes resulting from destruction of the

hippocampus. Acute oral zinc toxicity has been reported

to produce drowsiness and somnolence.

1.4.3. Iron

This trace element is one of the first minor elements. It is

essential for the growth of a child during the process of

growing. Iron was considered to be celestial origin in

ancient civilizations of the eastern mediterranean area.

The metal of heaven was very much used in Egypt and

Mesopotamia for therapeutic purposes.

Iron compounds were used by medical practitioners in

the Greco-Roman period. Fairbanks, V.F. et al. [21] have

reported that the therapeutic indications for iron during

the Roman era included alopecia, acne, dermatitis,

wounds, hemorrhoids, gout, pulmonary diseases, diar-

rhoea, vomiting, weakness, edema, fever and cystitis.

Many clinical disorders were shown to be associated

with low serum iron. McCance et al. [22] have concluded

from their research and have reported that once the iron

was absorbed by the human body, its excretion was very

minimal and was not controlled either by gastrointestinal

tract or by the kidneys. The plasma iron was in equilib-

rium with tissue iron. The level of plasma iron influenced

the rate of iron absorption. The intestine regulates the

rate of iron absorption.

Radioactive iron was used in the year 1938 by the sci-

entists to understand the metabolism of iron. Granick, S.

[23] adopted and extended the hypothesis of ferritin as

the mucosal regulator of iron absorption. This hypothesis

was used and named as mucosal block theory. It was

accepted as the physiological mechanism of regulation of

iron absorption. According to this hypothesis, iron enters

the mucosal cells and converted completely into ferritin

iron. This ferritin iron is in equilibrium with small

amounts of ferrous ions in the cells, and the ferrous ions

combined with plasma Fe++ and get an equilibrium state.

If our body is depleted of iron and the plasma iron is

found to be lowered, the iron from mucosa begins to

move out into the blood stream. The physiological satu-

ration of the mucosal cells with respect to ferrous iron is

maintained until part or all of the ferritin iron is con-

verted to ferrous iron. The depletion of iron leads to a fall

in the ferrous iron below its saturation value in the mu-

cosal cells, the radioactive iron administered orally be-

gins to be absorbed. Iron is found in the hemoprotein

enzymes, the cytochorme C. The iron is concerned with

oxidative mechanisms of all living cells. Moore, C.V. et

al. [24] have pointed clearly to the plasma iron as the

major form of transport iron. Flavoprotein enzymes of

iron were discovered by Mahler, H.R. et al. [25] and

Richert, D.A. et al. [26]. It is very well established by the

researchers that the iron is intimately involved in oxygen

utilization by the tissues as well as in oxygen transport as

part of the hemoglobin molecule.

The liver and spleen contain the highest iron concen-

tration. Kidneys, heart, skeletal muscles, pancreas and

brain represent only one tenth of the concentration only

in liver and spleen. The liver has a highest storage capac-

ity of iron in man. Liver can store 10 g of iron in certain

disease states. Iron occurs in blood as hemoglobin in the

erythrocytes and as transferrin bound in the plasma. The

ratio is 1000 to 1. A little amount of non-heme iron is

also found in the erythrocytes of human blood. Hemo-

globin is a complex of globin and four ferroprotoporphy-

rin (heme) moieties. Fisher et al. [27] have synthesized

this complex molecule.

Ingram et al. [28] have extablished a three-dimen-

sional picture of molecule with its four attached hemes.

They have studied the nature of the bond between iron

and globin. Now iron is stabilized in the ferrous state

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 455

completely, which allows it to be reversibly bonded to

oxygen. Due to this mechanism, hemoglobin works as an

oxygen carrier. The molecular weight of haemoglobin is

approximately 65,000. The average iron content is 0.34%

of the hemoglobin.

The synthesis of heme and its attachment to the globin

takes place in the advance stage of red cell development

in the bone marrow. The production of these two parts

occurs simultaneously.

The iron in human serum was studied by Holmberg,

G.C. et al. [29]. The trace element iron may be bounded

completely to transferrin. The statement was given by

Schade et al. [30]. The amino-acid-bound fraction of iron

may have an important physiological role in the biologi-

cal transport of iron across cellular membranes. Some

fraction about 30% - 40% of the transferrin carries iron.

Rest part of the transferrin is known as the latent iron-

binding capacity. Sleep deprivation in human beings may

be a factor to decline serum levels of iron. Most of fall in

the iron level occurs during the first 48 hours of sleep

deprivation. The serum iron levels may return to the

normal value within a week.

It is well documented that ferritin and hemosiderin are

two non haeme compounds. These occur in the tissues.

The liver, spleen and bone marrow have a high concen-

tration of iron. Both these compounds are not chemically

similar. Ferritin is soluble in water but hemosiderin is

insoluble. There is 20% of iron found in ferritin com-

pound. It is of brown colour. Ferritin contains a central

nucleus of iron surrounded by a shell of protein. The fer-

ritin molecule is defined as a poly nuclear iron coated by

assembly of protein chains. The average number of iron

atoms per molecule of ferritin is 3000 or less. Ferritin has

the storage capacity of 4500 iron atoms per molecule.

The iron free apo ferritin consists of a shell 130 × 10−10

m in outside diameter with a central cavity of 60 × 10−10

m across. Serum ferritin is found higher in males in

comparison to women. Many research scientists have

established a correlation between serum feffitin, concen-

tration and storage iron [31,32]. Hemosiderin is an amor-

phous compound. It has 35% of iron only. This type of

the structure exists in the tissues as a brown, granular,

readily stainable pigment.

The bone marrow and muscles contain suitable amount

of non-haeme iron. The storage iron concentration of

bone-marrow in normal man is 100 µg/g. The non-haeme

iron in the muscle is very low. The total amount is high

due to large muscle mass. The total storage of iron in

muscle is equal is to that of liver. The average concentra-

tion of iron in human milk is 0 - 5 µg/ml. The level of

iron in colostrum is 3 - 5 times higher than that in milk.

Iron occurs in milk in combination with protein. An

iron-protein compound named ferrilactin is found in

small concentrations. This can be isolated from human

milk.

The absorption of iron may be affected by the age,

iron status, and the state of health. This absorption in

man takes place mainly in the duodenum in the form of

ferrous.

Iron occurs in foods in inorganic forms, in combina-

tion with protein, in heme compounds as a constituent of

hemoglobin and myoglobin, and in other inorganic com-

plexes. Iron in heme compounds is absorbed directly into

the mucosal cells of the intestine without the necessity of

release from its bound form. The inorganic forms of iron

and the iron protein compounds need to be reduced to the

ferrous state and released from conjugation for effective

absorption. Amino acids such as histidine and lysine may

help in iron absorption. It has been established that a di-

rect reaction between iron and histidine occurs. They

formed a chelate and subsequently absorbed. Histidine is

a product of protein hydrolysis in the gastrointestinal

tract. Amino acid may be involved in the normal absorp-

tion of iron.

High intake of zinc, cadmium, copper and manganese

also interfere with iron absorption. During pregnancy, the

lady lost 350 - 400 mg iron in fetus and its adnexa. Al-

though the absorption of iron may be increased during

pregnancy in the third trimester of pregnancy. Hemoglo-

bin levels go down.

The only way significant amount of iron are lost from

the body is by blood loss. In case of women who are in

the menstruation age group, the loss of iron is likely to be

more than the dietary intake. Loss of iron is a reason of

iron deficiency in women due to menstruation. Defi-

ciency of iron may originate from insufficient input, in-

adequate absorption or too much loss by the bleeding.

Inadequate food input is more usual compared to what is

normally believed, specially in the aged persons as a

growing hyochromic microcytic anaemia.

In normal situations, the absorption of iron is accu-

rately regulated according to the requirements of the

body. If a person consumes alcohol in excess, the ab-

sorption of iron becomes excessive. Haemochromotosis

is a disease involving the storage of iron. This may be

treated as the inborn defect in the metabolism. The iron

deposited in the tissues damages progressively. The main

organs involved by this mechanism are the liver cirrhosis,

the heart which involved in the cardiac arrest and the

pancreas for diabetes.

Serum iron can be estimated by the dilution of plasma.

But the probability of iron contamination due to presence

on non-visible hemolysis puts this method as highly un-

reliable. Data indicate that 50% increase can occur from

non-visible hemoglobin and more than 100% from serum

showing slight haemolysis.

In children anorexia, depressed growth and decreased

resistance to infection but the oral lesions and nail

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456

charges are not so common. Significant fall in the iron

content is a phenomenon commonly observed. In adults

and post menopausal women the principal cause is

chronic blood loss due to infections, malignancy, bleed-

ing ulcers and hookworm infestation. Iron deficiency

anaemia is more common in females compared to males.

It is because women of fertile age are subject to addi-

tional iron losses in menstruation, pregnancy and lacta-

tion. Iron is necessary for red blood cells formation and

function. The amount of iron needed is higher in women

of child bearing age, which is important for brain func-

tion.

1.4.4. Magnesiu m

Magnesium is one of the best plentiful element on the

universe with special reference to earth. This element is

the fourth most abundant cation in the vertebrate. Aikawa,

J.K. [33,34] showed in the studies related to magnesium

and found that magnesium is associated with so many

different biological processes.

Magnesium is present in a small concentration in all

cells and it is necessary for cellular metabolism. This

trace element is also present in bone along with calcium.

It shares so many properties of calcium so far as absorp-

tion and metabolism and tissue distribution are concerned.

This trace element is also implicated to have a role in

cardiovascular disease. Magnesium is essential for cer-

tain enzymes. It protects mitochondria, which is the

storehouse of energy from the dangerous oxidants.

Widdson et al. [35] have studied the magnesium con-

tent in human body and found a range of magnesium,

which stated from 22.7 to 35.0 meq/kg weight of tissues.

Magnesium reaches us in many forms. These are magne-

sium amino acidchelate, magnesium carbonate, magne-

sium oxide, magnesium oxide dolomite and magnesium

sulfate. There is 70% of human body magnesium redides

in bones and teeth. This element is essential to the func-

tioning of human body. Because it transmits nerve im-

pulses, causes the contraction of muscles and integral to

healthy development of bones and teeth.

All the chemical reactions in human body require an

enzyme system to help biochemical reaction mechanism.

The enzyme system has three parts. They are protein

molecule, which must be specific, another smaller or-

ganic compound called vitamin, such as pyridoxine or

vitamin B6 and at the last a charged mineral, such as zinc,

copper, manganese or magnesium. This element plays an

important role of cofactor in more than 300 enzymatic

reactions in the human body. Each mineral when dis-

solved in fluids has a characteristic electrical charge,

which is called as valance. Minerals with a charge of +

called univalent cations, include sodium and potassium.

Minerals with a charge of ++ called divalent cations,

include copper, zinc, manganese and magnesium. Potas-

sium and magnesium are the most abundant cations

found within the cells of the body with magnesium. One

readily accessible and easily absorbed form of magne-

sium is magnesium chloride. It is soluble in water. This

readily dissociates which can increase the rate of absorp-

tion. All the organic matter such as plants, animals and

human body are made up of combination of elements

such as oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. These tiny build-

ing blocks join to create the compounds that help in

making our tissues, body fluids. Microscopic elements

are used to regulate the body’s function.

Magnesium is an important mineral that is needed by

every cell in human body. It has been found that half of

the magnesium stores in the body is deposited in the cells

of the body’s organs and tissues and rest half of this ele-

ment is found in our bones. Magnesium occurs here in

combination with phosphorus with phosphorus and cal-

cium. It is well established that magnesium occurs only

in one percent concentration in the blood. The human

body has to work very hard in order to keep magnesium

levels as constant in the blood. The human body contains

about 760 mg of magnesium at the ime of birth. It goes

upto 5 gm at the age of 4-5months and it reaches upto 25

g when a body attains an age of adult. About 30 to 40%

magnesium is found in muscles and soft tissues. One

percent is found in extracellular fluid, and the remainder

is in skeleton. If we are going to consider the particular

importance with respect to the pathological effects of

magnesium depletion. We have to take into account the

role of this element in regulating potassium fluxes and its

involvement in the metabolism of calcium [36-38]. It has

been established that magnesium depletion depresses

both cellular and extracellular potassium and exacerbates

the effects of low potassium diets on cellular potassium

content. Muscle potassium depletes as magnesium defi-

ciency develops, and tissue repletion of potassium is vir-

tually impossible unless magnesium status is restored to

normalcy. Low plasma calcium develops frequently as

magnesium status declines. About 55% of body magne-

sium is located within bone, and it forms a surface con-

stituent of the hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate) min-

eral component. The magnesium is exchangeable with

serum and therefore represents a moderately accessible

magnesium store, which can be drawn on in times of

deficiency. The proportion of bone magnesium in this

exchangeable form declines significantly with growing

age. It has been seen that there is a significant increase in

bone mineral density (BMD) of the femur and is associ-

ated with the increase in erythrocyte magnesium. The

other roles of magnesium in skeletal tissues are not

widely known.

Magnesium is a miracle trace element. This element

has a tendency of healing effect. Due to this property a

wide range of diseases may reduce or disappear com-

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 457

pletely. This trace metal has an ability to rejuvenate

the ageing body. Magnesium is helpful in the develop-

ment of healthy brain and nervous system. The teeth and

bones may get the proper dosage of magnesium. Mag-

nesium helps in the fight of the human body with infec-

tion.

One of the medical investigators has cured several pa-

tients of diphtheria with the dosage of magnesium chlo-

ride. The administration of this dosage was for two days

only. Poliomyelitis cases were also studied and treated

with the magnesium. The patients became fit within the

couple of days. If the paralysis had already progressed

the patients may got recovery within a month. It has been

found that magnesium chloride is effective with asthma,

bronchitis, pneumonia and emphysema, pharyngitis, ton-

sillitis, hoarseness, common cold, influenza, whoofing

cough, measles, rubella, mumps, scarlet fever, poisoning,

gastro-enteritis, boils, abscesses, whitlow, infected wounds

and osteomyelitis. Many researchers have confirmed the

healing effect of this of this salt magnesium chloride

Mg ) of magnesium in the diseases such as acute

asthma attack, shock, tetanus, herpes zoster, acute and

chronic conjunctivitis, optic neuritis, rheumatic disease,

many allergic diseases, chronic fatigue syndrome. It was

a beneficial effect in human health.

It has been found that young women, children and

most of all babies have soft body structures and smooth

skin with low calcium and high magnesium levels in

cells and soft tissues. There is a remarkable finding in the

literture available and we may be able to say that as the

age grow old men and post menopausal women become

more and more inflexible. The arteries harden to cause

artheriosclerosis, the skeletal system calcifies to cause

rigidity with fusion of the spine and joints, kidneys and

other organs and glands increasingly calcify and harden

with stone formation, calcification in the eyes causes

cataracts and even the skin hardens, becoming tough and

wrinkled. Now we can say that calcium is in the same

scale (league) as oxygen and other free radicals, while

magnesium works together with hydrogen and antioxi-

dants to keep our body structure soft. Magnesium plays a

major role in the functioning of the organs present in the

human system. It helps in maintaining nerve and muscle

functions, strengthens the immune system and maintains

a steady heart rate. This element also helps to the regu-

late sugar levels in blood, plays a major role in protein

synthesis and energy metabolism and maintains normal

blood pressure. It prevents disorder like hypertension,

diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

About 1% of magnesium is found in the extracellular

fluid, inside cells, magnesium may be found bound to

phospholipids. It is very important to note that increasing

dietary protein intake may increase magnesium require-

ments because high protein intake may decline magne-

sium retention [39].

It is advisable that to completely understand magne-

sium function, it is very important to explore magne-

sium’s relationship with calcium and potassium. Magne-

sium and Potassium also have a close relationship. Mag-

nesium is required for the function of sodium and potas-

sium pump. If a magnesium deficiency occurs, then

pumping of sodium out of the cell and pumping potas-

sium into the cell may be impaired [39]. Cardiac attack

comes due to the deficiency of magnesium. Magnesium

plays a very important role of trace element in the car-

diac function. The level of magnesium may cause severe

problems. Many studies [40-43] have shown an effect of

the level of magnesium regarding heart attack.

Alcoholism, renal disease, diabetes mellitus may all

cause a deficiency of magnesium. Nausea, vomiting,

anorexia, muscle weakness, muscle weakness, muscle

spasms and tremors are the few symptoms and signs re-

lated to deficiency of magnesium.

Magnesium has an effect on CNS. It is used for a bet-

ter sleep. This element may be used to calm irritated and

over excited nerves. This is useful with epileptic attacks,

convulsions in pregnant women and shakes with tremors

in alocholism. If the level of magnesium is very low, the

nerves lose control over muscle activity, respiration and

mental processes. Nervous fatigue, ties and twitches,

termers irritability, hypersensitivity, muscle spasms, rest-

lessness, anxiety, confusion, disorientation and irregular

heartbeat all respond to higher levels of magnesium.

Epilepsy is marked by abnormally low magnesium

levels in the blood, spinal fluid and brain, causing hy-

perexcitability in regions of brain. It has been established

that there is a sudden change in the progress of improv-

ing or disappearing of epileptic attack with the admini-

stration of proper dosage of magnesium. If the level of

magnesium is low, the severity of epileptic attack goes

up. Research scientist have made the studies on magne-

sium and found that this element works best in combina-

tion with vitamin B6 and zinc. Magnesium inhibits con-

vulsions by limiting or slowing the spread of the electric

discharge from an isolated group of brain cells to the rest

of the brain.

1.4.5. Cal cium

We know that 99% of calcium is found in the bones and

teeth of a human body. Rest of the element resides in the

soft tissues and blood of the body. Calcium is most im-

portant element of the body. Our body structure is made

up calcium and other minerals. If the calcium is absent,

we are not in a position to make a regular form or struc-

ture. We shall lie on the ground and not able to stand.

Calcium is the most important mineral in the human

body. It has been measured and found that the average

adult body contains in total 1 kg and ninty nine percent in

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458

the skeleton in the form of calcium phosphate salt. Ex-

tracellular fluid contains 22.5 m mol. We found this ele-

ment about 9 m mol in the serum. About 500 mmol of

calcium is exchanged between extracellular fluid and

bone. It is an essential element for all living things. It can

be used for fertilization of cell and division of cells. This

element is used for hormonal activities. Calcium also

controls the mechanical stability of the walls and mem-

branes in the cells and stimulates muscle contractions.

It has been reported in the literature that bones are the

best reserve of calcium. Mineralization of teeth and

bones is the main function of calcium. Mainly 99% of

total body calcium is used the above mentioned process.

Small amount of the rest body calcium is essential for the

function of so many tissues such as clotting of blood,

stimulation of secretory activity in all endocrine, exo-

crine, and neurocrine cells; and the regulation of contrac-

tion and relaxation in cardiac and skeletal muscle.

The skeleton is an important, chief reservoir of cal-

cium. It serves to maintain both plasma calcium concen-

trations and to make optimal use of ingested calcium.

Calcium serves both functions mainly by adjusting the

factor of balance between the bone formation-transfer

mineral from blood to bones, and bone resorption-trans-

fer mineral from bone to blood.

Calcium is involved in the function of excitable tissues.

Before the heart can beat, special cells in a region of the

heart called sinoatrial mode (SA node) must spontane-

ously initiate an electric pulse. Calcium is mainly in-

volved in the initialization the impulse the SA node. This

impulse will stimulate the rest of the heart to contract. It

is also involved in the contraction of heart muscles and

muscles of the skeletal.

Contraction and expansion of blood vessels is per-

formed by the utilization of calcium. Calcium is useful in

the secretion of hormones and enzymes, as well as com-

munication between the different sections of the CNS.

Bones are always a part of a continuous process of

breaking down and reconstruction. This mechanism of

breaking and building consists mainly of resorption and

deposition of calcium into newly formed bone, with the

end result bone formation. This process or balance of

bone absorption and deposition begins to changes as the

body attains a higher age. At this age break downs are

high rather than building of bones. During the age of

younger side more growth of bones starts with a less de-

terioration of the bones. In the case of women after the

menopause the breaking of bones is high and less build-

ing of bones. Due to this process osteoporosis may de-

velop. It helps in the formation of weak porous bones

which is responsible for fracture of bones. If we supply a

proper dosage of calcium in the human body then osteo-

porosis disease can be reduced and delayed.

Calcium shares left sided cell receptors and is essential

for human health. It promotes blood clotting by activat-

ing the protein fibrin along with magnesium to regulate

the heart beat, muscle tone, muscle contraction and nerve

conduction.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) which can be secreted by

the parathyroid gland and calcitonin secreted by the thy-

roid gland can maintain serum calcium levels in the

range 8.5 to 10.5. Renal functions retain more calcium.

This element plays an indispensable role in cell perme-

ability, formation of bones and teeth, blood coagulation,

transmission of nerve impulse and normal muscle con-

traction. Severe calcium imbalance requires emergency

treatment because a deficiency called hypocalcemia can

lead to tetany and seizures. Excess of calcium is respon-

sible for cardiac arthythmias and coma

If the serum calcium levels go down, it can develop

the problems related to failure of kidney and nerve fibre

irritability and repetitive muscle spases, perioral pares-

theris, twitching, carpopedal spasm, tetany, seizures and

cardiac arrest.

If the levels of calcium in serum are on the higher side,

it causes hypercalcemia. Due to excess of calcium in the

human body, it develops the muscle weakness, decreased

muscle tone, lethargy, anorexia, constipation, nausea, vo-

miting, dehydration, polydipsia, and polyuria. If the cal-

cium level goes upto 5.7 mEq/L it can work as a catalyst

in the cardiac arrhythmias and coma.

Depression is mainly associated with hypercalcemia

due to hyper-parathyroidism and hypervitaminosis D.

Many patients suffering from hyperthyroidism receive

diagnosis of psychoneurosis, schizophrenia or schizoid

personality. Irritability, mood swings and paranoid psy-

chosis are associated with hypocalcemia.

Emotional symptoms which occur due to disturbances

of calcium homeostasis may be elevated with normaliza-

tion of calcium metabolism. It has been established that a

positive calcium balance may occur in skeleton as a

whole for 10 to 15 years after cessation of linear growth.

In calcium homeostasis, the amount of calcium depos-

ited in bone is the same as the amount reabsorbed. This

disease develops at the age of 35 years. The deposition of

calcium increases and occurs in proportion to bone

growth, skeletal turnover, although less rapid during

adulthood, in the growing child. This process continues

throughout life upto fourth decade, i.e., 40 years. The

turnover becomes dominated by bone resorption. It has

been established that a positive calcium balance may

occur in skeleton as a whole for 10 to 15 years after ces-

sation of linear growth

It has been reported in the literature [44-47] that the

ingested calcium mixes with digestive juice calcium in

the proximal small intestine from where it is absorbed by

a mechanism. This process has an active saturable com-

ponent and diffusion componenet. Calcium is mainly

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 459

absorbed by active transport during the low calcium in-

take. This active transport is called transcellular transport.

If the intake of calcium is high, the increasing proportion

of calcium many be absorbed by paracellular diffusion.

The unabsorbed component appears in the faeces to-

gether with the unabsorbed component of digestive juice

calcium. This is called as endogeneous faecal calcium. It

is concluded that the faeces contain unabsorbed dietary

calcium and unreabsorbed digestive juice calcium. Uri-

nary and endogenous faecal calcium are not the only

forms of calcium for excretion. The loss from skin, hair,

and nails must taken into account. It is very well known

fact that the deficiency of calcium causes osteoporosis.

We are not in a position to say about bone and calcium

metabolism during aging to enable calculation of the

calcium necessities of older men and women. It has

been found that calcium absorption decreases with the

increase of age in both males and females [48-50]. The

calcium content of the newborn baby is 24 g. Maximum

part of this calcium is laid down in the trimester of the

pregnancy during which the fOetus retains 240 mg of

calcium daily.

The calcium content of human milk is 36 mg per 100

ml [51]. A lactating lady may produce 750 ml of milk

daily. It has been reported that 280 mg of calcium can be

fed to a new born child. It is very interesting result,

which is reported in the literature that the bone is lost

during lactation and restored after weaning [52,53].

This type of loss of calcium can be prevented by the sup-

plementation of calcium [54]. Calcium deficiency is dan-

gerous. Researches have shown low bone density as a

result of Ca deficiency. Due to low density, the fracture

rate is very high in developing countries. Rickets has not

been reported so far.

Calcium is a nutrient which plays a role in neuromus-

cular function, enzyme mediated mechanism, blood clot-

ting and providing rigidity to the skeleton by virtue of its

phosphate salts. Its non-structural roles require the strict

maintenance of ionized calcium concentration in tissue

fluids at the cost of skeleton.

Calcium requirements are essentially determined by

the relationship between absorptive efficiency and ex-

cretory rate. The excretion may be started through bowl,

kidneys, skin, hair and nails. The rate of calcium absorp-

tion from the gastrointestinal tract needs to match the rate

of all losses from the body, if the skeleton is to be main-

tained at suitable value of calcium with extra input of

calcium with water. It must be stored in non-oxidizing

medium, such as a liquid hydrocarbon.

1.4.6. Sodium

Elemental sodium was isolated in 1807 by passing an

electric current through molten sodium hydroxide. Ele-

mental sodium not occur naturally on earth. The sodium

quickly oxidizes in air and is reactive. The free metal is

used for chemical synthesis, analysis and heat transfer

applications. Sodium ion is soluble in water. It is present

in great quantities on earth. Sodium ion is also a compo-

nent of many minerals.

Before proceeding further, we wish to say something

regarding electrolyte because chemically electrolyte are

the substances ions in the solution. These ions acquire

the capacity to conduct electricity. Human body contains

electrolytes. The balance of the electrolytes is essential

for function of cells and organs of human beings.

Main electrolytes which are measured in the blood by

the doctors are sodium, potassium, chloride and bicar-

bonate.

Sodium is the positive ion (Na+) which is called cation.

This is found in fluid outside the cells. Sodium is com-

bined with the chloride make a common salt which is

very necessary for the growth of human body. Excess of

sodium is excreted in the urine. Sodium is very helpful in

regulating the total amount of water in the body and the

transmission of sodium into and out of the individual

cells. It may also play a role in body functions. There are

many processes in the human body such as in the brain,

nervous system, and muscles. They require electrical

signals for communication. The movement of sodium is

very critical in the generation of electrical signals. Excess

and deficit of sodium may lead to malfunction. The ex-

treme value of sodium in the body can be fatal. Sodium

is found in both states such as electrolyte and mineral. It

helps in keeping water and the electrolyte balance in hu-

man body. Sodium is very essential to regulate nerves

and muscles function.

Most of the sodium in the human body is found in

blood and lymph fluid. Aldosterone hormone controlled

partly the levels of sodium in human system. Adrenal

glands are responsible for the hormone. The level of al-

dosterone in human body tells about the kidneys when to

hold the sodium element in the body instead of passing it

in urine. Small amounts of sodium may last through the

skin during the process of sweating.

Sodium is an essential nutrient responsible for regula-

tion of blood volume and blood pressure. Sodium main-

tains the complete balance of fluids in the human system.

It transmits nerve impulses. The contraction of muscle

and relaxation is influenced by the system [27]. This

element maintains osmotic equilibrium and acid-base

balance in the human body. The minimum physiological

requirement for trace element sodium is 500 mg per day.

Healthy adult requires 1500 mg of sodium per day.

It has been established in the literature that there is a

counter balancing system. This system senses the volume.

When the fluid retained, receptors in the heart and ves-

sels which sense distension and pressure, cause produc-

tion of arterial natriuretic peptide. This hormone acts in

different ways to cause the body to lose sodium in urine.

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This causes the body’s osmotic balance to drop, which in

turn causes the osmoregulation system to excrete the

excess water. The net (total effective) effect is to return

the body’s total fluid levels back to towards the normal

value. Sodium cation is important in the neuron

(brain and n erve) funct ion.

The ability of the kidney to conserve sodium in re-

sponse to sodium deprivation and to excrete sodium in

response to sodium loading are impaired with the aging

factor.

The sodium is a mineral, which regulates body fluid

volume, concentration and acid-base mechanism. Sodium

levels in human blood can drop whenever there is a dis-

ease that causes diarrhoea, vomiting or sweating. These

symptoms lead to a loss of the body fluids and sodium

also. The loss of sodium may be temporary and resolve

when the illness disappears. It is very important mineral

in human system which helps the body in proper nerve

conduction, the passage of various nutrients into cells,

and maintenance of blood pressure. If a person consumes

too much or too little sodium, the intestines and kidneys

respond to adjust the concentration to a normal value.

The intestines absorb dietary sodium. Kidneys excrete a

nearly equal amount of sodium into the urine.

The concentration of sodium in blood depends on the

total amount of sodium and water in different arteries,

veins and capillaries. Human body regulates sodium and

water in many different ways. A sodium level in the

blood is very low can cause seizures and coma. Very

high intake of sodium may lead to death. Death is caused

by heart failure. If the body has very low level of sodium,

a disease called hyponatremia results. On the other hand,

if we take more sodium salt, the hypernatremia may be

the disease.

There are many diseases which are generated by the

abnormal salt intake. These are diseases of kidney, pitui-

tary gland, and hypothalamus. The hypothalamus and

pituitary glands are also involved in the regulation of

sodium by making and releasing vasopressin into the

blood. The Vasopressin is known as anti-diuretic hor-

mone.

Sodium levels may go up in unconscious patients be-

cause they do not consume more water. Water is con-

tinually lost by evaporation from the lungs in the urine.

Excess of sodium is also dangerous can include confu-

sion, coma, paralysis of lung muscles and death. The

severity of the symptoms is related to how quickly the

high sodium levels developed. If the levels build up sud-

denly, the brain cells can not adapt to their new high so-

dium environment. Moderately low levels of sodium may

trigger fatigue, confusion, headache, muscle cramps and

nausea.

If we are taking excessive sodium chloride (common

salt, the chemical formula is NaCl), heart attack will be a

greatest problem. When the human body lacks exercise

of work and carries out sitting jobs in the air conditioned

room, there are few chances that the body will sweat out

to excrete the unnecessary salts. When the process of

excretion is blocked or stopped from one side and from

the other side we are taking more salt, then the human

system will collapse. Cardiac arrests and cramps around

the cardiovascular area are quite imminent with the ex-

cess of salt.

Blood pressure in the body has to be maintained at the

prescribed and standard rates. If the standards of the

pressure are failed, the system leads to serious damage of

the blood vessels and results might be lethal.

The excessive measure of blood pressure is a factor to

give hypertension. If the cholesterol content in the body

due to obesity combined with excessive consumption of

sodium chloride, then hypertension occurs. It produces a

restlessness in the patients. A tendency of hyperactivity

of mood develops at all the time. A continuous stress

develops and accumulates without our notice, due to lack

of complete deep rest of our mind and our body.

Retardation of metabolism in the body is also a serious

problem related to excessive intake of sodium chloride.

Table salt is necessary for the growth of body but the

consumption must be according to the need of body. Ex-

cess of salt due to the taste of the tongue must be very

less. We should try to adjust accordingly.

1.4.7. Potassiu m

This element is very important for the proper function of

all cells, tissues and organs in the human system. This is

an electrolyte able to conduct electricity in the body,

along with sodium, chloride, calcium and magnesium. It

is very crucial element for proper heart function and

plays an important role in skeletal and smooth muscle

contraction, making it very useful for normal digestive

and muscular function. This element acts as a conductor

for energy impulses throughout the body. It triggers

chemical reactions in the body. It is found inside the hu-

man body cells. It helps in smooth muscular and cellular

functioning, cardiovascular functioning, muscle contrac-

tions, nerve transmission, in conversion of glucose into

glycogen and muscle building, etc. It is necessary to

monitor and regulate aldosterone (hormone). This ele-

ment plays an important role of catalyst for many en-

zymes activities inside the human body. It helps in im-

proving ATP hydrolysis. It is also termed as diuretic. It is

easily absorbed by our body. It is believed that 85% -

90% is excreted from our bowls and kidneys. Due to the

alkaline property of this element, pH level is balanced

and water level may get stabilized in the body. The main

feature of potassium is to maintain blood pressure under

control and helps in intra-cellular nutrient transfer. Po-

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 461

tassium is also responsible for keeping acne, some types

of allergies, fatigue, kidney stones, etc.

Potassium is eight most common elements by mass in

the human beings. Studies show that an adult of weight

approximately 60 kg has a potassium upto 20 grams. The

human body has about as much potassium as sulfur and

chlorine. Potassium cations are very important in the

functions of neuron (brain and nerve). This element is

also helpful in the osmotic balance between cells and

intestinal fluid by Na+/K+ AT phase pump. This ion

pump uses ATP to pump three sodium ions out of the cell

and two potassium ions into the cell creates an electro-

chemical gradient over the cell membrane.

Potassium can be detected by taste because this ele-

ment triggers three of five types of taste sensation, ac-

cording to concentration. It the dilution of potassium ion

is present, then the taste will be sweet. Moderate per-

centage of potassium ion is found in milk and juices.

Higher concentration becomes bitter or alkaline. If we

have a highest level of concentration of potassium ion

then the taste will be salty. This element is also important

in preventing muscle contraction. It is being used in

sending the all types of nerve impulses through action

potentials. This element is necessary for the function of

all living cells. Potassium ion diffusion is a key mecha-

nism in nerve transmission, and potassium depletion in

human. There are some neurological dysfunctions such

as epilepsy, headache, migraine, muscular dystrophy and

Alzheimer’s Disease developed by the levels of potas-

sium in the blood.

We would like to add here that below the normal value

of potassium, we have a serious problem in the human

body called hypokalemia. Potassium facilitates nerve

impulse conduction and the contraction of skeletal and

smooth muscles, including heart. It also facilitates cell

membrane function and proper enzyme activity. The lev-

els of potassium in the body must be kept in a suitable

balancing condition for the maintenance of health.

1) Hyperkalemia:

If we found the levels of potassium in the blood higher

than normal value then a disease may occur, which is

called hyperkalemia. This may be related to an increase

in total body potassium or the excess release of potas-

sium from the cells into the blood stream. Kidneys re-

move excees potassium from the body. It has been found

in most of the cases that hyperkalemia caused by disor-

ders which reduce the ability to get rid of potassium.

These disorders are such as acute kidney failure, chronic

kidney failure, glomerulonephritis, obstructive uropathy

and rejection of a kidney transplant.

Hypothyroidism is an illness of thyroid which may be

a causative factor of potassium deficiency. It may be

developed by the imbalance of other minerals similar to

potassium such as magnesium, sodium and calcium.

It has been reported in the literature that there is a

positive link between a diet rich in potassium and bone

health. Suitable levels of potassium are the good sign of

bone development in the human beings. Some studies

related to blood pressure shows low levels of potassium.

Supplement of this element might cause a slight drop in

blood pressure. It has also been studied that if we are

taking a diet rich in potassium, stroke risk is negligible

otherwise it may be higher at any time, which is danger-

ous for our life. The hormone aldosterone regulates kid-

ney removal of sodium and potassium. A deficiency of

this hormone may be a cause of hyperkalemia. This defi-

ciency increases the total body potassium. Addison’s

disease is one of the disorders that cause reduction of

aldosterone.

Hyperkalemia may be caused by the medications. It

has no symptoms but there are few signs such as irregu-

lar heartbeat, nausea, slow, weak or absent pulse related

to this disease. This disease can have a serious life threat-

ening effects on the human body. A gradual increase in

potassium may occur with chronic renal failure. Potas-

sium supplements can irritate the stomach and cause

nausea. Higher levels of potassium in the blood will

cause stomach cramps, diarrhea and disrupt the digestion

process.

Muscle fatigue and weakness are the symptoms of too

much potassium citrate. Numbness, tingling and limp-

ness in the extremities are the side effects. These are the

factors related with potassium.

2) Hypokalemia:

Hypokalemia means serum or plasma levels of potas-

sium below the normal value. There are two causes for

hypokalemia defined here one is related to overall deple-

tion in body’s potassium and the next is related to exces-

sive uptake of potassium by the muscle from the sur-

rounding fluids. It is well reported in the literature that

need OF potassium IS to control muscle action. Hypo-

kalemia can cause the heart to stop breathing.

Mild hypokalemia does not show any symptom under-

standable position is missing. If a person has moderate

hypokalemia which is very important to diagnose easily

by the help of some understandable symptoms such as

confusion, disorientation, weakness and discomfort of

muscles, discomfort in the legs. Severe hypokalemia may

produce extreme weakness of the body, paralysis. Dif-

ferent types of paralysis such as flaccid, limpness, lung

muscles are common. This type of hypokalemia may

cause abnormal heart beat. Abnormal heart beat is dan-

gerous for our heart and it is the sign of cardiac arrest.

Hypokalemia does not show any symptom in healthy

subjects because of the rich percentage of potassium is

found in healthy persons.

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1.5. Role of Trace Elements in Relation to

Immunity

Nutrition and health both are linked each other but the

importance of trace elements on immune system is also a

field of research, which was established in the last two

decades. It is a field of understanding of adequate trace

elements supplementation may be a good path to design a

better nutrition, which protects human beings against

infections.

Cell biology and molecular genetics are the branch of

science have been facilitated main efforts to determine

specific cellular and molecular functions of trace ele-

ments in maturation, activation and functions of host

defense mechanisms.

Immune cells, require a proper supply of trace metals

to express and preserve the structure and function metal-

loproteins. These cells may also participate in energy

production. Trace element levels can effect the immune

function not only in a direct process but also by modu-

lating plasma levels of hormones which are used to

regulate the development and function of host deference

cells. The trace elements may influence some mecha-

nisms of non specific immunity by modulating inflam-

matory cell function.

It has been seen that the effect of mineral deficiency

on acquired immune system can be demonstrated by

examining the response of lymphocytes to T cells mito-

gens. The levels of trace elements may also affects the

synthesis and secretion of cytokines and chemokines

which modulate the activities of immune and other cells.

A good application of micronutrient which are also

called as trace elements interventions is probably related

to vaccine response in older stage in human beings.

Mortality associated with influenza is more likely to ap-

pear in this population.

A significant physiological role of many trace ele-

ments in the development, maturation, and sustenance of

the morphologic integrity and function of the lymphoid

organs concerned with immunity has been well estab-

lished.

The immune system plays a key role in the body’s

ability to fight against infections and reduce the risk of

developing tumors autoimmune and degenerative disease.

Nutritional deficiencies and excesses influence different

components of the immune system.

Katz, M. et al. [55] and Suskind, R.M. et al. [56] have

studied the influence of nutrition upon host immune

compertence. Correlations of protein and energy nutriture

and their role in immuno responsiveness have been stud-

ied by Bongiorni, I.B. et al., [57] and Malave, I. et al.

[58]. Many trace elements are critical for mammalian

survival and reproduction. High consumption of highly

refined and heavily processed food items reflect that the

trace element content may be reduced significantly.

It has been established that the observations of mar-

ginal zinc status coupled with experimental examinations

of altered immunocompetence and impaired response to

pathogenic challenge in zinc-deficient. A significant ap-

preciation for the essentiality of zinc for intact im-

munlological function has been created. It has been sur-

veyed that the patients with low serum levels of zinc may

increase the susceptibility to a variety of infections dis-

orders as well as abnormal immune parameters. Cellular

immune reponsiveness and responds to zinc administra-

tions with nearly complete amelioration of their immu-

nodeficiency syndrome.

A protein-energy malnourised children have been

shown to have low levels of serum zinc, and the immuno

deficiency syndrome may be observed in such patients

can be partially corrected by zinc administration.

The value of level of zinc may affect the phagocytic

cell function the complement system and mast cell me-

diator release which can be seen at the efferent arm of

immune response [59].

Some of the studies on the role of copper metabolism

and immune functions have been carried out and shown

the effect on T and B cells, neutrophils, macrophages, as

well as complement and immunoglobulin structure and

function. Rigas et al. [60] reported that an additional

process due to which copper acts in altering immune re-

sponse may involve an interaction at the level of the

plasma membrance. Copper has bean shown to amelio-

rate the toxic effects of diethyldithiocarbamate upon both

T cell and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. The interac-

tion of copper must occur at the cell membrance. Serum

copper and cerroluplasmin levels increase in a large vari-

ety of acute infectious disorders.

Calcium ion are involved intimately in so many as-

pects of lymphocyte activation such as blast transforma-

tion in response to mitogens. Calcium is known to com-

plete in a number of biological systems.

1.6. Review of the Literature and Estimation of

the Trace Elements in the Blood of the

Patients Suffering from Epilepsy

For the perfect maintenance of vital mechanisms of the

organs, the three elements must be present within the

specific ranges of concentrations. Trace elements should

fulfill the special biological functions such as catalysis in

the synthesis of proteins and enzymes, as active centres

of proteins and as structure forming parts of molecules

[61].

Blood serum and plasma are the body fluids can be

investigated with respect to trace elements. How much

amount of trace element enters into the blood circulation

after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract depends on

its chemical binding, which is available in the food stuff.

Products of catabolism are also transported via the serum

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 463

to be excreted or reutilized. Deficiency states become

evident when the body pools are depleted at a point too

late for prevention of the disease.

Adnan, M. et al. [62] have studied simultaneous de-

termination of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn and Se in human blood of

Jordanian smokers by ICP-OES and compared with those

of healthy subjects and found that the average concentra-

tions of Cu and Zinc were 2.328 and 3.214 mg/litre re-

spectively. Results revealed that the finding are in good

agreement with the certified values.

Keck, E. et al. [63] have studied calcium metabolism

and vitamin D metabolite levels in children receiving

anticonvulsant drugs and found that their data do not

support the hypothesis that anticonvulsant drugs act on

vitamin D metabolism.

John H. et al. [64] have studied altered calcium me-

tabolism in epileptic children on anticonvulsants. They

have shown a reduction of serum calcium levels in thirty

percent and a raised serum alkaline phosphate in twenty

four percent. On the basis of statistical theory the inverse

correlation with the level of serum calcium have been

found. Serum calcium level were found 9.0 mg/100 ml,

which is below the normal value.

William, B. H. et al. [65] have studied trace metals in

human plasma and red blood cells and reported few

findings, which are very useful for the diagnosis of the

diseases such as the levels of magnesium in the plasma

has a range 12.5 to 36.0 ppm. Copper has a range 0.50 to

1.93 ppm and the levels of zinc have a range from 0.49 to

7.70 ppm. They have also used statistical analysis and

found that the value of zinc were lowered.

Guidotti, T. L. et al. [66] have shown some of the find-

ings on the interpretation of trace element analysis of

body fluids. They have estimated copper levels in the

serum and found that the levels are 11 to 28 μmol per

litre. The level of zinc were measured and found as 8 to

20 μmol/litre.

Khanna R. S. et al. [67] have studied the role of trace

elements and antioxidants in free radical medical injury

in neonates. They have reported their findings for birth

asphyxia and measured the elements such as zinc, copper

and iron. The levels of zinc were found as (99.523 ± 7.44)

μg/dl, copper levels were (38.119 ± 2.68) μg/dl and iron

levels were reported as (108.636 ± 13.03) μg/dl. They

have also calculated and estimated the levels of trace

elements and reported that the plasma zinc, copper and

iron levels were elevated.

Walsh, W. J. et al. [68] have studied elevated blood

copper/zinc ratios in assaultive young males. They have

shown mean Cu/Zn ratio in assaultive subjects as 1.40 ±

0.54 and compared with healthy controls and found this

ratio as 1.02 ± 0.18. It has been seen that the ratio is

higher than normals, either the levels of copper or zinc

were higher. We can safely say that assaultive person has

a higher value of the ratio of Cu/Zn. One can make a

check on this ratio to normalize it for the safe living of

the young males to leave the nature of assault.

Pamela J. F. [69] has studied zinc deficiency and im-

mune function and reported their findings as modest

deficits in zinc cause lymophophenia and reduced im-

mune capacity among affected human beings. Skin le-

sions and poor wound healing were also observed in se-

vere forms of the deficiency of zinc.

Atilla, I. I. et al. [70] have studied the comparison of

nail and serum trace elements in patients with epilepsy

and healthy subjects and found that there were no sig-

nificant difference in serum zinc levels between epileptic

patients and normals. They have reported other findings

related to copper levels in serum also. The levels of cop-

per in serum were significantly higher in comparison to

normals.

Smith J. C. et al. [71] have studied direct measurement

of zinc in plasma by atomic absorption spectroscopy.

They have shown low zinc values in plasma as (70 ± 0.0)

μg/dl whereas in controls it was found (90 ± 0.0) μg/dl.

The higher Zinc values were (158 ± 5.0) μg/dl.

Prasad R. et al. [72] have studied cerebro-spinal fluid

and serum zinc, copper, magnesium and calcium levels

in children with idiopathic seizure. They have reported

that high serum copper levels and increased ratio of

Cu/Zn. Magnesium could be responsible for elevated

neuronal excitement in children with idiopathic seizures.

The serum copper levels were (112.9 ± 41.88) μg/dl. The

normal value were reported as (66.46 ± 18.44) μg/dl.

Serum zinc level were (64.82 ± 18.44) μg/dl. These lev-

els were decreased from the normal values. Serum mag-

nesium levels were reported as (0.87 ± 0.34) μg/dl and

compared to normal (0.93 ± 0.18) μg/dl. These levels

were below the normal value of. Serum calcium levels

were found to be (10.47 ± 1.16) μg/dl and compared with

normal (10.76 ± 3.29) μg/dl. These were below the nor-

mal value but not significant.

Tinggi, U. et al. [73] have made their contribution re-

lated to trace metals and studied the trace metals using

flame atomic absorption technique. It has been reported

in their article as the levels of Cu were found to be (61 ±

5) μg/ml and levels of zinc were measured as (861 ± 23)

μg/ml.

Wills J. B. [74] has studied the levels of magnesium in

blood serum and estimated these levels with the help of

flame atomic absorption spectrophotometric technique.

They have measured the levels of magnesium in the hu-

man blood with the removal of calcium from the serum.

Deniz T. et al. [75] have studied effects of antiepilep-

tic drugs on serum and hair trace elements. They have

reported their findings as the level of copper were found

to be (114.55 ± 7.38) μg/ml and normals were reported as

(111.22 ± 13.06) μg/ml for group A. Group B was also

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S. KUMAR ET AL.

464

studied and the level of copper were reported as (111.45

± 5.97) μg/ml and normals (112.65 ± 9.35) μg/ml.

The levels of zinc were estimated in Group A as

(56.65 ± 4.67) μg/ml and in controls (99.0 ± 8.0) μg/ml.

The estimation of zinc were carried out in group B also

and found that the level of zinc were reported as (69.75 ±

3.07) μg/ml and in normals measured as (85.90 ± 2.79)

μg/ml.

The levels of magnesium were also made and reported

as (130.5 ± 7.9) μg/ml and in normals as (134.0 ± 9.41)

μg/ml in group A. Group B also conducted for the esti-

mation of magnesium and reported as (19.44 ± 0.53)

μg/ml and in normal (19.50 ± 6.4) μg/ml.

Soylak M. et al. [76] have studied copper and zinc

concentrations of serum samples of healthy people living

in Tokat, Turkey and they have reported the levels of

zinc and copper as (0.54 ± 0.21) mg/ml and (0.86 ± 0.24)

mg/ml respectively. The mean concentration of zinc and

copper were found in the lower limits of the worldwide

acceptable values.

Lech, T. [77] has reported his findings on calcium and

magnesium content in hair as a predictor of diseases in

children. The levels of calcium were found in healthy

children as (906 ± 796) μg/g and magnesium levels as

(29.4 ± 32.9) μg/g. The calcium levels in neurological

diseases were also measured and found as (520 ± 436)

μg/g and the level of magnesium as (29.3 ± 25.3) μg/g.

Leh has shown the complete story of calcium and mag-

nesium levels in the different age group of the children,

which has a range from 0 to 15 years. He has also re-

ported in the literature that the children with neurological

disorders suffer from high deficiencies of calcium in

their hair in relation to magnesium. Deficiency increases

with the aging. A deficiency of magnesium in the body

as a whole can appear for periods without the occurrence

of hypomagnesemia. The low magnesium and calcium

allow us to suppose that the deficiencies in calcium are

caused by the deficit level of magnesium.

Avci, H. et al. [78] have studied trace elements in epi-

leptic patients with special references to hair analysis and

compared their results with the healthy subjects. They

have measured copper, iron, zinc, magnesium and cal-

cium with the application of spectroscopy such as flame

atomic absorption spectrophotometric method. A detailed

analysis for controls shown that the levels of copper were

found to be (19 ± 7) μg/g in males, and (16 ± 8) μg/g in

females. The levels of iron reported as (9 ± 2) μg/g in

healthy males and (15 ± 9) μg/g for healthy females. Zinc

levels were estimated for healthy males as (200 ± 61)

μg/g and (218 ± 87) μg/g for healthy females. It has been

noticed that the levels for magnesium in healthy males

were (259 ± 76) μg/g and (505 ± 219) μg/g for healthy

females. The levels of calcium in healthy subject males

only were (960 ± 419) μg/g and (1162 ± 533) μg/g for

healthy females.

During the process of epileptic patient’s analysis, the

levels of copper in males were found as (14 ± 9) μg/g and

in females as (10 ± 2) μg/g. The levels of iron in males

were reported as (6 ± 4) μg/g and in females these were

(7 ± 5) μg/g. Levels for zinc were also measured and

found as (211 ± 63) μg/g in males and (218 ± 127) μg/g

in females. The levels of magnesium in males were re-

ported as (329 ± 285) μg/g and (444 ± 203) μg/g in fe-

males. Calcium levels were also measured and found to

be (947 ± 850) μg/g in males, while (1143 ± 437) μg/g in

females. They have reported that lower levels of iron and

copper were observed and which were significantly

lower in scalp hair analysis.

Delves H. T. et al. [79] have studied the concentration

of trace metals in the blood of epileptic children and

found that the levels of iron, zinc and copper in healthy

controls as (386.0 ± 0) μg/100 ml, (510 ± 0) μg/100 ml

and (97.9 ± 0) μg/100 ml. They have measured these

levels in children of different age group as (373.4 ± 0)

μg/100 ml, (617.9 ± 0) μg/100 ml and (102.2 ± 0) μg/100

ml respectively.

Smith, J. C. et al. [80] have studied the serum levels of

zinc and copper in epilepsy and found that the levels of

zinc in epilepsy (13 ± 2) mg/dl and in controls (14 ± 2)

mg/dl. They have measured copper levels also and re-

ported as (18 ± 3) mg/dl in epilepsy and (18 ± 6) mg/dl in

healthy controls.

Kumar S. [81] studied zinc, copper and iron in Grand

Mal (G.M.) epileptic patients and found the levels of zinc

as (38 ± 16) mg/dl in controls and (16 ± 9) mg/dl in epi-

lepsy. The levels of copper were also measured and

found as (44 ± 24) mg/dl in controls and (30 ± 17) mg/dl

in epilepsy. Iron levels were also estimated with the help

of flame atomic absorption photometric technique and

reported as (20 ± 8) mg/dl in controls and (29 ± 15)

mg/dl in epilepsy.

Kaji, M. et al. [82] have studied serum copper and zinc

levels in epileptic children with valporic treatment and

reported their findings as the levels of copper were sig-

nificantly lower. The levels of copper were measured as

(82 ± 16.6) μg/dl in epileptic patients and (97.3 ± 23.0)

μg/dl in normal healthy subjects. The levels of zinc were

not altered in patients.

Barlow, P. J. et al. [83] have studied trace elemental

abnormalities in hyperactive children and agitated senile

dements and found that levels of zinc were significantly

lower in hyperactive children. They presumed that there

may be homeostatic mechanisms that maintain serum

zinc relatively constant.

2. Basic Theory of Flame Atomic Absorption

Spectroscopy

The phenomenon of atomic absorption was first observed

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 465

in 1802. Walsh, A. proposed the atomic absorption spec-

troscopy for the quantitative analysis of elements [84].

Skoog, D.A. et al. [85] have supplied relevant informa-

tions about this technique in detail. Atomic absorption

analysis involves measuring the absorption of light by

vaporized ground state atoms and relating the absorption

to concentration. The incident beam of light is attenuated

by atomic vapour absorption according to Beer’s Law.

The instrumental and chemical parameters of the system

must be geared towards the production of neutral ground

state atoms of the proposed element for study. The con-

version of sample from its native state to the atomic state

can be achieved by using a method called flame atomic

absorption spectroscopy (AAS) or an electric furnace.

The sample undergoes a number of pretreatment steps

prior to analysis in the furnace.

The sample is dried by evaporating the solvent in the

first step. The organic matrix is decomposed by heating

the sample in the second step. The heating temperature

may go upto 1000˚C. Ultimately, the furnace is rapidly

heated to a temperature around 2400˚C to produce va-

porized neutral atoms with as many as possible in their

electronic ground states.

The absorption spectrum of the gas phase atoms is ex-

tremely narrow of the order ≤10−2 nm. Thus the ligand

source used for absorbance measurements must be ex-

actly the correct wavelength and of narrow line width for

Beer’s law to remain valid. The light source used in AAS

is a hollow cathode lamp in which light is emitted from

excited atoms of the same element which is to be deter-

mined. This means that the radiant energy corresponds

directly to the wavelength, which is absorbable by atom-

ized sample. This method gives up both sensitivity and

selectivity. Other elements in the sample will not gener-

ally absorb chosen wavelength and thus, will not inter-

fere with the measurement. Molecular species may also

be formed during the step of atomization. This can alter

the spectral characteristics of the analyte metal or can

cause spectral interference at the wavelength being moni-

tered. To reduce background interference, the wave-

length of interest is isolated by a monochromator placed

between the sample and the detector. Zeeman or D2 tech-

niques for background correction may also be used for

complex matrices. We used a graphite furnace atomic

absorption spectrophotometer. The ashing and atomiza-

tion processes can also be examined. A calibration of this

instrument has been made for different elements using a

series of standard solutions.

AAS determines the presence of metal in liquid sam-

ples. It is an instrument to measure the concentration of

metals in the sample. Metals will absorb ultraviolet light

in their elemental form when they were excited by heat.

Each metal has a characteristic wavelength of absorbance

be absorbed. This spectrophotometer locks for a particu-

lar metal by focusing a beam of ultraviolet light at a spe-

cific wavelength through a flame into a detector. The

sample of interest aspirated into the flame. If the metal is

present in the sample will absorb some of the light,

which reduces the intensity. The instrument measures the

change in intensity. The change in intensity may be con-

verted into absorbance. If the concentration is made high,

the absorbance will also rise.

It has been established in the literature that the AAS

throw light and give informations regarding the number

of gaseous metal atoms remain in the ground state nor-

mally. These ground state atoms are more capable of

absorbing radiant energy of their own specific resonance

wavelength. The light of resonance wavelength is passed

through a flame containing the atoms, then some part of

the light will be absorbed. The extent of absorption is

proportional to the number of ground state atoms present

in the flame. The atomic absorption spectroscopy is

based on the same principle as the flame test used in qua-

litative analysis. In the flame, the ions are reduced to

gaseous metal atoms.

heated

Compound Atoms

The high temperature of the flame excites a valence

electron to a higher energy orbital. The atom then emits

energy in the form of visible light as the electron falls back

into the lower energy orbital (ground state). Energy dia-

gram for excited and emitted states is given in Figure 1.

The ground state atom absorbs light of the same char-

acteristic wavelengths as it emits when coming back

from the excited state to the ground state. The intensity

of the absorbed light in proportional to the concentration

of the element in the flame. Absorbance or emission of

atomic vapour can be measured.

2.1. Relationship between Absorbance and the

Concentration of Atoms

Integrated absorption may be calculated by the formula

which is given below





emcfN





 (2.1)

Here,



is absorption coefficient at the frequency



; is electronic charge; is mass of an electron;

is velocity of light;

e m

is oscillatory strength of the

absorbing line; 0 is number of metal atoms per ml.

able to absorb the radiation.

A graph between frequency and absorption coefficient

is shown in Figure 2.

2.2. Effect of Temperature on Atomic Spectra

It has been established that the temperature changes

number of atoms in ground and excited states.

Boltzmann has established a simple relation for the

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S. KUMAR ET AL.

466

Emitte d energy

Excited st at e

Absorbed energy





Ground state

Figure 1. Energy diagram for the excited and emitted sta-

tes.







Figure 2. Graph between the absorption coefficient and fre-

quency.

number of atoms as









(2.2)

Here

are number of atoms in excited state.

are number of atoms in the ground state.

is Boltzmann constant equal to the value



1.28

10J k



.

is temperature.

 is difference in energy between ground state and

excited states.

1 are number of states having equal energy at energy

interval .

0 are number of states having equal energy at energy

interval .

2.3. Detection Limit

The detection limit is the lowest concentration of an

analyte that can be distinguished with reasonable confi-

dence from a field blank

3DC A



 (2.3)

Block diagram of spectrophotometer is shown in Fig-

ure 3.

An optical arrangement is shown in Figure 4.

3. Materials and Methods

Blood samples of epileptic patients along with normal

healthy control were collected from Department of Neu-

rology, Safdarjang Hospital, New Delhi 110016 after the

approval of ethical committee of the hospital. 10 ml.

freshly drawn blood from each patient was collected in

clean and dry test tube without any anti-coagulant. The

test tube was kept for 45 minutes at room temperature

(22˚C ± 2˚C) for the formation of clot. Sera of different

patients were separated by centrifugation at 1500 r.p.m.

upto 15 minutes and were collected in screw capped test

tubes.

The atomic absorption spectral estimation of the serum

samples from normal persons and epileptic patients were

carried out on atomic absorption spectrophotometer

Model No. AA-6300 of Shimadzu Japan, at Dept. Envi-

ronmental study University of Delhi 110007.

4. Results

We have measured the values of trace elements such as

Cu, Fe, Zn, Na, K, Ca, and Mg, in epileptic patients and

healthy normal control given in Table 2 and Table 3

along with the latest availability of the literate.

We have given the normal limits of radiation and de-

tection in Table 4.

Regression coefficient and multiple correlation coeffi-

cients were also given in the Table 5 and Table 6.

Multiple correlation coefficients are given in Table 7.

Student “t” test was applied to all the trace elements

and it was trailed for two tailed t test with unpaired and

paired values and given in Table 8 and Table 9.

Line SourceMonochromatorFlame Detector

Read-out

Nebulizer

Figure 3. Block diagram of a flame spectrophotometer.

Continuum

source

HCL source

Burner com partment

Reference beam

Detector

Monochromator

Figure 4. Optical arrangement of atomic absorption spec-

trophotometer.

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S. KUMAR ET AL.

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467

Table 2. Values of trace elements analysis Cu, Fe, Z n , Na, K, Ca, and Mg.

S.No. Type of Samples a) Cu ppm Fe ppm Zn ppm Na ppm K ppm Ca ppm Mg ppm

1. E 0.5137 5.7896 5.3516 3.220 0.1560 4.2123 4.0989

2. E 0.1817 0.0081 5.5081 3.2890 0.1677 3.9312 3.8691

3. E 0.1632 0.0998 1.4843 3.2890 0.1482 4.5626 5.0965

4. E 0.1966 0.5854 2.1457 3.312 0.1560 2.7946 4.1834

5. E 0.2281 4.7711 4.3873 3.266 0.1482 3.1551 5.9011

6. E 0.2058 0.5234 0.0909 3.220 0.1443 2.6317 6.0695

7. E 0.0074 3.2280 0.3029 3.243 0.1560 4.1817 3.9365

8. E 0.1261 1.1992 0.4089 3.266 0.1638 5.7542 3.9365

9. E 0.1372 2.3539 0.7775 3.266 0.1521 3.5584 3.9365

10. E 0.0742 3.6488 0.4392 3.151 0.1677 5.5037 5.9893

11. E 0.1057 0.1187 0.5251 3.243 0.1482 0.00 0.00

12. E 0.1167 1.9661 2.3099 3.151 0.1443 0.00 0.00

13. E 0.2521 3.2284 0.4178 3.289 0.1638 0.00 0.00

14. E 0.1482 1.1420 1.4504 3.312 0.1794 0.00 0.00

15. E 0.2094 0.6168 0.8526 2.921 0.1638 0.00 0.00

16. E 0.1612 0.2945 0.5487 3.197 0.1560 0.00 0.00

17. N 0.1242 0.7014 1.4944 3.082 0.1404 0.0105 0.1607

18. N 0.0742 1.1412 0.8027 2.990 0.1482 0.1051 0.1117

19. N 0.1261 1.1439 2.1356 3.128 0.1443 0.0394 0.1382

20. N 0.1113 0.4505 0.5705 3.105 0.1404 0.0578 0.1019

21. N 0.1187 0.1619 0.5856 3.220 0.1521 0.042 0.1186

22. N 0.1168 0.0594 0.8482 3.220 0.1443 0.0578 0.1137

23. N 0.1558 0.6111 1.2874 3.128 0.1482 0.0499 0.0608

24. N 0.1598 5.7895 0.0240 3.082 0.1404 0.0394 0.1176

25. N 0.2094 0.5850 1.4921 3.128 0.1404 0.0079 0.0588

5. Discussion

We have calculated regression coefficiens, regression

lines and multiple correlation coefficients between Na, K,

Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Fe. It has been noticed that the

value of RNa.KCa and RFe.CuZn are found to be less corre-

lated and go down upto 49%and 43% respectively while

other correlations such as RK.NaCa, RCa.K.Na, RMg.NaK

RNa.MgK, RK.MgNa, RCu.FeZn, RZn.FeCu are found to be higher

than normal values and strongly correlated with each

other.

Many of the essential elements are required for human

health and occasionally the margin between minimum

needs and maximum tolerance of is very feeble. The

chemical form of the trace element and the interactions

between different trace elements included in the diet are

also important in deciding between health and hazard. If

we are able to monitor foods and environment for the

effects of pollution therefore demands sublety and an

awareness of the complexity. It has been apparent that

many trace elements play an important role in the main-

tenance of human health and that an imbalance in trace

elements may be a significant factor in a number of

physical and neurological conditions. The imbalance may

occur as an excess of an element or a deficiency of an

element. Most of the elements can become toxic if the

level in the body rises above a minimum or standard

value.

The importance of nutritional states in maintaining the

physical well-being of the human system is very well

understandable but the role of diet, including metabolism

of dietary constituents is much less well understood.

We have shown the importance and relevance of the

results obtained by us in convulsive seizures and the pos-

sible mechanisms.

Trace elements act as catalytic agents for enzyme sys-

tems of the cells. These elements play a role in enzyme

reactions range from weak, ionic strength effects to

highly specific associations known as metalloenzymes.

Metal is firmly associated with the protein and there is a

fixed number of atoms per molecule of protein which can

not be removed from this association by dialysis. Re-

moval of the metal by more drastic means leads to loss in

the activity of enzyme. This loss can not be restored

readily either by re-addition of the metal.

The minimum requirements of living creatures for the

essential trace elements are expressed in proportions or

concentrations of the total dry food taken daily. The

maximum intake of elements within the normal limits of

S. KUMAR ET AL.

468

Table 3. Results along with work carried out by researchers on different mode of analysis using different types of samples

and diseases.

S. No. Element Type of sample Mean + S.D. Disease Reference

1. Calcium Serum (9.0 ± 0) mg/100 ml Epileptic John, H. et al. [64]

2. Calcium Serum (10.47 ± 1.16) µg/dl Epileptic Prasad, R. et al. [72]

3. Calcium Serum (10.76 ± 3.29) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

4. Calcium Hair (906 ± 796) µg/g Controls Lech, T. et al. [77]

5. Calcium Hair (520 ± 436) µg/g Neurological disorders Lech, T. et al. [77]

6. Calcium Hair (960 ± 419) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

7. Calcium Hair (1162 ± 533) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

8. Calcium Hair (947 ± 850) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

9. Calcium Hair (1143 ± 437) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

10. Calcium CSF (6.47 ± 0.87) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

11. Calcium CSF (5.85 ± 2.49) µg/dl Epilepsy Prasad, R. et al. [72]

12. Calcium Serum (2.46 ± 0.09) µg/dl Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

13. Calcium Serum (2.41 ± 0.08) µg/dl Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

14. Calcium Hair (430 ± 200) µg/g Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

15. Calcium Hair (694 ± 349) µg/g Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

16. Copper Serum (38.119 ± 2.68) µg/dl Birth Asphyxia Khanna R. S. et al. [67]

17. Copper Serum (29.677 ± 1.611) µg/dl Controls Khanna R. S. et al. [67]

18. Copper Serum (2.328 ± 0) mg/l Smokers Adnan, M. et al. [62]

19. Copper Serum (11.28 ± 0) µmol Neurotoxic Guidotti, T. L. et al. [66]

20. Copper Serum (112.9 ± 41.88) µg/dl Epileptic Prasad, R. et al. [72]

21. Copper Serum (66.46 ± 9.76) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

22. Copper Serum (111.22 ± 13.06) mg/l Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

23. Copper Serum (112.65 ± 9.33) mg/l Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

24. Copper Serum (114.55 ± 7.38) mg/l Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

25. Copper Serum (111.45 ± 5.97) mg/l Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

26. Copper Serum (0.86 ± 0.24) mg/l Controls Soylak, M. et al. [76]

27. Copper Hair (19 ± 7) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

28. Copper Hair (16 ± 8) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

29. Copper Hair (14 ± 9) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

30. Copper Hair (10 ± 2) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

31. Copper Serum (97.9 ± 0) µg/100ml Controls Delvis, H. T. et al. [79]

32. Copper Serum (102.2 ± 0) µg/100ml Neurological disorders Delvis, H. T. et al. [79]

33. Copper Serum (44 ± 24) mg/dl Controls Kumar, S. et al. [81]

34. Copper Serum (30 ± 17) mg/dl GME Kumar, S. et al. [81]

35. Copper Serum (18 ± 3) mg/dl Epilepsy Smith and Bone [80]

36. Copper Serum (18 ± 6) mg/dl Controls Smith and Bone [80]

37. Copper CSF (43.34 ± 19.32) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

38. Copper CSF (36.69 ± 24.89) µg/dl Epilepsy Prasad, R. et al. [72]

39. Copper Serum (82.2 ± 16.64) µg/dl Epilepsy Kaji, H. et al. [82]

40. Copper Serum (97.3 ± 23.0) µg/dl Controls Kaji, H. et al. [82]

41. Copper Hair (38.2 ± 20.5) µg/g Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

42. Copper Hair (47.8 ± 31.7) µg/g Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

43. Iron Serum (108.636 ± 13.03) µg/dl Birth Asphyxia Khanna R. S. et al. [67]

44. Iron Serum (91.469 ± 2.42) µg/dl Controls Khanna R. S. et al. [67]

45. Iron Hair (9 ± 2) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

46. Iron Hair (15 ± 9) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

47. Iron Hair (6 ± 4) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

48. Iron Hair (7 ± 5) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

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S. KUMAR ET AL. 469

Continued

49. Iron Serum (386.0 ± 0) µg/100ml Controls Delves, H. T. et al. [79]

50. Iron Serum (373.4 ± 0) µg/100ml Neurological disorders Delves, H. T. et al. [79]

51. Iron Serum (20 ± 8) mg/dl Controls Kumar, S. et al.[81]

52. Iron Serum (29 ± 15) mg/dl GME Kumar, S. et al.[81]

53. Iron Hair (8.8 ± 3.0) µg/g Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

54. Iron Hair (15.7 ± 10.6) µg/g Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

55. Magnesium Serum (0.87 ± 0.34) µg/dl Epileptic Prasad, R. et al. [72]

56. Magnesium Serum (0.93 ± 0.18) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

57. Magnesium Serum (24.13 ± 0.81) mg/l Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

58. Magnesium Serum (19.44 ± 0.53) mg/l Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

59. Magnesium Serum (24.33 ± 2.74) mg/l Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

60. Magnesium Serum (19.50 ± 0.64) mg/l Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

61. Magnesium Hair (40.5 ± 32.9) µg/g Controls Lech, T. et al. [77]

62. Magnesium Hair (29.3 ± 25.3) µg/g Neurological disorders Lech, T. et al. [77]

63. Magnesium Hair (259 ± 76) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

64. Magnesium Hair (505 ± 219) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

65. Magnesium Hair (329 ± 285) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

66. Magnesium Hair (444 ± 203) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

67. Magnesium CSF (1.31 ± 0.18) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

68. Magnesium CSF (1.03 ± 0.58) µg/dl Epilepsy Prasad, R. et al. [72]

69. Magnesium Serum (0.80 ± 0.04) µmol/l Controls Smith and Bone [80]

70. Magnesium Serum (0.80 ± 0.06) µmol/l Epilepsy Smith and Bone [80]

71. Magnesium Hair (53.9 ± 36.9) µg/g Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

72. Magnesium Hair (67.5 ± 47.4) µg/g Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

73. Zinc Serum (99.523 ± 7.44) µg/dl Birth Asphyxia Khanna R. S. et al. [67]

74. Zinc Serum (91.497 ± 2.44) µg/dl Controls Khanna R. S. et al. [67]

75. Zinc Serum (3.214 ± 0) mg/l Smokers Adnan, M. et al. [62]

76. Zinc Serum (8.20 ± 0) µmol Neurotoxic Guidotti, T. L. et al. [66]

77. Zinc Serum (64.82 ± 18.44) µg/dl Epileptic Prasad, R. et al. [72]

78. Zinc Serum (99.0 ± 8.0) mg/l Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

79. Zinc Serum (85.90 ± 2.79) mg/l Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

80. Zinc Serum (56.65 ± 4.62) mg/l Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

81. Zinc Serum (69.75 ± 3.07) mg/l Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

82. Zinc Hair (134.0 ± 9.41) µg/g Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

83. Zinc Hair (136.59 ± 8.56) µg/g Controls Denitz, T. et al. [75]

84. Zinc Hair (130.5 ± 7.9) µg/g Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

85. Zinc Hair (134.0 ± 7.1) µg/g Epileptic Denitz, T. et al. [75]

86. Zinc Serum (0.54 ± 0.21) mg/l Controls Soylak, M. et al. [76]

87. Zinc Hair (200 ± 61) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

88. Zinc Hair (218 ± 87) µg/g Controls Avci et al. [78]

89. Zinc Hair (211 ± 63) µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

90. Zinc Hair (218 ± 127 µg/g Epileptic Avci et al. [78]

91. Zinc Serum (510 ± 0) µg/100ml Controls Delves, H. T. et al. [79]

92. Zinc Serum (617.9 ± 0) µg/100ml Neurological disorders Delves, H. T. et al. [79]

93. Zinc Serum (16 ± 9) mg/dl GME Kumar, S. et al. [81]

94. Zinc Serum (13 ± 2) mg/dl Epilepsy Smith and Bone [80]

95. Zinc Serum (14 ± 2) mg/dl Controls Smith and Bone [80]

96. Zinc CSF (5.61 ± 2.02) µg/dl Controls Prasad, R. et al. [72]

97. Zinc CSF (6.64 ± 4.40) µg/dl Epilepsy Prasad, R. et al. [72]

98. Zinc Serum (83.2 ± 11.8) µg/dl Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

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Continued

99. Zinc Serum (87.6 ± 12.4) µg/dl Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

100. Zinc Hair (97.5 ± 14.7) µg/g Hyperactive children Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

101. Zinc Hair (123.0 ± 12.6) µg/g Controls Barlow, P. J. et al. [83]

102. Zinc Serum (1.6875 ± 1.8156) m g/l Epilepsy Present work

103. Zinc Serum (1.0267 ± 0.6347) mg/l Control Present work

104. Calcium Serum (4.0285 ± 1.052 1) m l/ l Epilepsy Present work

105. Calcium Serum (0.0483 ± 0.028 4) m l/ l Controls Present work

106. Copper Serum (0.1767 ± 0. 1087) m g/l Epilepsy Present work

107. Copper Serum (0.1329 ± 0. 0380) m g/l Control Present work

108. Iron Serum (1.8483 ± 1.8079) m g/ l Epilepsy Present work

109. Iron Serum (1.1826 ± 1. 7671) m g/l Control Present work

110. Magnesium Serum (4.7017 ± 0.9548) mg/l Epilepsy Present work

111. Magnesium Serum (0.1098 ± 0.0310) mg/l Control Present work

112. Potassium Serum (0.1572 ± 0. 0098) m g/l Epilepsy Present work

113. Potassium Serum (0.1443 ± 0. 0043) m g/l Control Present work

114. Sodium Serum (3.2271 ± 0.0956) mg/l Epilepsy Present work

115. Sodium Serum (3.1203 ± 0.0708) mg/l Control Present work

Table 4. Elements with normal limits of radiation and detection.

S. No. Element Wavelength Detection µg/ml

1. Calcium 4227 0.08

2. Copper 3248 0.10

3. Magnesium 2852 0.01

4. Potassium 7665 0.03

5. Sodium 5890 0.03

6. Iron 2483 0.10

Table 5. Regression and correlation coefficient studies on Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu and Fe in epileptic samples.

Diagnosis Regression

coefficients

Regression

equations

Coefficient

of correlation

Coefficient of

partial correlation

Multiple correlation

coefficient

Na.K

b = 0.0888

K.Na

b = 0.0009

Na = 0.0888K + 3.213

K = 0.0009Na + 0.1541NaK

r = 0.0091 CaNa.K

r = −0.4992

CaK.Na

r = −0.7019

Na.KCa

R = 0.4993

K.NaCa

R = 0.7019

Ca.Mg

b = −0.1603

Mg.Ca

b = −0.1320

Ca = -0.1603Mg + 4.7821

Mg = -0.1320Ca + 5.2338CaMg

r = −0.14 NaK.Ca

r = 0.3561

MgNa.K

r = −0.5366

K.NaCa

R = 0.7509

Mg.NaK

R = 0.6206

Cu.Fe

b = 0.0254

Fe.Cu

b = 7.0330

Cu = 0.0254Fe + 0.1296

Fe = 7.0330Cu + 0.6055CuFe

r = 0.42 MgK.Na

r = −0.4218

NaK.Mg

r = −0.2194

Na.MgK

R = 0.5367

K.MgNa

R = 0.4219

Cu.Zn

b = 0.0357

Zn.Cu

b = 9.9642

Cu = 0.0357Zn + 0.1163

Zn = 9.9642Cu – 0.0731ZnFe

r = 0.33 ZnCu.Fe

r = 0.5318

ZnFe.Cu

r = 0.1192

Cu.FeZn

R = 0.6412

Fe.CuZn

R = 0.4366

Fe.Zn

b = 0.2404

Zn.Fe

b = 0.4785

Fe = 0.2404Zn + 1.4426

Zn = 0.4785Fe + 0.8030CuZn

r = 0.59 CuFe.Zn

r = 0.2922 Zn.FeCu

R = 0.6044

the human body is called tolerance. The tolerance may be

related as the fertility, growth, health or other relevant

criteria of different dietary mineral concentrations.

There are safe dietary levels of potentially toxic trace

elements. These depend on the extent to which other

elements are present.

Copper and zinc are responsible for the seizures in

animals at low dosage administration. It may be probably

related to the inhibition of Na-K ATPase activity. We

must take care of our body not to take these two elements

in sufficient amount. We must take proper intake of the

copper and zinc enrich diet of our food.

Magnesium alters calcium metabolism and may stabi-

lize excitable membranes. It has been reported in the

literature for the importance of trace metals which may

have a role to play in the production of seizures and their

S. KUMAR ET AL. 471

Table 6. Regression and correlation coefficient studies on Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu and Fe. In normal samples.

Diagnosis Regression

coefficients Regression equations Coefficient of

correlation

Coefficient of

partial correlation

Multiple correlation

coefficient

Na.K

b = 4.1282

K.Na

b = 0.0156

Na = 4.1282K + 2.524

K = 0.0156Na + 0.0955 NaK

r = 0.2539 CaNa.K

r = −0.5293

CaK.Na

r = 0.6316

Na.KCa

R = 0.6016

K.NaCa

R = 0.6616

Ca.Mg

b = −0.0090

Mg.Ca

b = 0.0107

Ca = −0.0090Mg + 0.04923

Mg = −0.0107Ca + 0.1103 CaMg

r= −0.0098 NaK.Ca

r = 0.5187

MgNa.K

r = −0.0663

Ca.KNa

R = 0.6894

Mg.NaK

R = 0.1196

Cu.Fe

b = 0.0048

Fe.Cu

b = 10.3828

Cu = 0.0048Fe + 0.1272

Fe = 10.3828Cu – 0.1974 CuFe

r = 0.2236 MgK.Na

r = −0.0801

NaK.Mg

r = 0.2472

Na.MgK

R = 0.2618

K.MgNa

R = 0.2654

Cu.Zn

b = 0.0109

Zn.Cu

b = 3.0297

Cu = 0.0109Zn + 0.1217

Zn = 3.0297Cu + 0.6239 CuFe

r = −0.4814 ZnCu.Fe

r = 0.3388

ZnFe.Cu

r = −0.5447

Cu.FeZn

R = 0.3988

Fe.CuZn

R = 0.5761

Normal

Fe.Zn

b = −1.3404

Zn.Fe

b = −0.1729

Fe = −1.3404Zn + 2.5589

Zn = −0.1729Fe + 1.2320 CuZn

r = 0.1817 CuFe.Zn

r = 0.3610 Zn.FeCu

R = 0.5656

Table 7. Multiple correlation between trace elements.

1. Na.KCa

R = 0.4993 (Epilepsy) = 0.6016 (Normal)

2. K.NaCa

R = 0.7019 (Epilepsy) = 0.6616 (Normal)

3. Ca.K.Na

R = 0.7509 (Epilepsy) = 0.6894 (Normal)

4. Mg.NaK

R = 0.6206 (Epilepsy) = 0.1196 (Normal)

5. Na.MgK

R = 0.5367 (Epilepsy) = 0.2618 (Normal)

6. K.MgNa

R = 0.4219 (Epilepsy) = 0.2654 (Normal)

7. Cu.FeZn

R = 0.6412 (Epilepsy) = 0.3988 (Normal)

8. Fe.CuZn

R = 0.4366 (Epilepsy) = 0.5761 (Normal)

9. Zn.FeCu

R= 0.6044 (Epilepsy) = 0.5656 (Normal)

Table 8. Student “t” test applied on the trace elements two tailed unpaired t test. Two tailed unpaired t-test.

S.N Element t (exp) t (theo) p df Result Null hypothesisConclusion

1 Na 2.9197 2.82 0.0077 23 t (theo) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

2 k 3.7131 3.79 0.0011 23 t (theo) > t (exp)Rejected Differences between the mean K levels of epilepsy

and that of normals is strongly significant

3 Ca

11.319

3.97 0.0001 17 t (theo) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

4 Mg

14.380

3.97 0.0001 17 t (theo) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

Cu 1.1592 0.69 0.2583 23 t (theo) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

6 Fe 0.8906 0.69 0.3823 23 t (the) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

7 Zn 1.048 0.69 0.3055 23 t (theo) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

Table 9. Student “t” test applied on the trace elements two tailed paired t test. t test (two tailed ) paired.

S.N Element t (exp) t (theo) p df result Null hypothesisConclusion

1 Na 4.9115 5.04 t (the) > t (exp)Rejected Differences between the mean Na levels of epilepsy

and that of normals is strongly significant

2 K 3.4112 3.36 0.018 t (the) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

3 Ca 11.7348 5.04 0.0018 t(theo) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

4 Mg 15.1212 5.04 0.0018 t (the ) < t (exp)Accepted Not significant

5 Cu 1.2355 1.8 0.25178 t (the) > t (exp)Rejeted Differences between the mean Cu levels of epilepsy

and that of normals is strongly significant

6 Fe 0.8684 0.71 0.41058 t (the) < t (exp )Accepted Not significant

7 Zn 1.6203 1.8 0.14838 t (the) > t (exp)Rejected Differences between the mean Zn levels of epilepsy

and that of normals is strongly significant

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S. KUMAR ET AL.

472

control in human beings.

Zinc, magnesium and copper also play an important

biochemical role in the human metabolism. Electro phy-

siological research indicates that some divalent cations,

e.g. Mg++, Zn++, etc. reduce the excitability of control

neurons, probably replacing a calcium ion from places of

binding.

Epilepsy is a challenging disorder because its mecha-

nisms are not well established. There are so many ex-

perimental and human studies demonstrated that the ab-

normal metabolism of trace elements might be involved

in the pathophysiology of this brain disorder related to

paroxysmal disturbances.

On the other hand, the number of studies focusing on

the trace element levels of epileptic patients prior to and

during the treatment is rather limited [86-89].

It has been reviewed and reported in the literature that

the living things need 72 biological elements for normal

metabolic function, reproduction, and maintenance of the

immune system. Calcium is an element which is gener-

ally deficient. It is required in every cell in our body and

vitally important. If the food is grown on soils which

contain all the 72 elements, we may say it is healthy food.

Insects and diseases do not attack plants grown in healthy

soil. Insects are nature’s garbage disposal agents. We

choose to kill insects and allow ourselves to eat garbage.

Disease is also nature’s way of eliminating those things

that are not healthy. They maybe plants, animals and

humans.

Food we eat is deficient in over sixty vital important

elements. The food which is deficient to all such types of

elements is the basic cause of large numbers of physio-

logical and mental diseases such as auto immune disease,

late onset diabetes, degenerative and chronic diseases,

allergies and birth defects and neurological disorders.

It has been established in the literature that the routine

cocktail of medications with their complicated interac-

tions and side effects should be rejected. We must pro-

vide a chance for minerals, vitamins and essential fatty

acids and trace elements for healthy body.

Trace elements are essential in the assimilation and

utilization of vitamins. Elements help in the digestion.

The elements work as a catalyst for hormones and en-

zymes. They may work as an aid in replacing electrolytes

lost through perspiration. Elements protect against toxic

reactions.

Reinstatement of trace elements in our soils eliminates

all plant diseases, pests and insect attacks. This elimi-

nates the need for use of toxic agricultural chemicals. We

may have a healthy food rather than a food which is defi-

cient to all the trace elements.

We know that living organisms, including humans, are

part of environment they reflect what is present in their

surroundings. Traces of a large variety of both natural

and man-made compounds can be found in the tissues

and fluids of humans as a result of exposure to these

compounds in air, soil, water, food and consumer prod-

ucts.

Evidences from analysis of foods and water, as well as

from direct measurements of fluids and tissues, reveals

that the levels of some harmful elements have decreased

now a days.

We are able to detect a number of compounds in the

human body that results from the use of consumer prod-

ucts, such as pharmaceuticals and dietary supplements,

and from lifestyle choices, such as smoking and alcohol-

ism.

The continuous detection of trace elements in human

tissues and fluids has led to legitmate concern about the

possible health effects of the presence of elements in

human body. To evaluate this fact, it is important to un-

derstand how these elements are detected, what trends

are in the levels, and what is known about the health im-

pacts of the levels that have been detected.

6. Conclusions

It has been noticed that the value of potassium in epilepsy

in unpaired t test is found strongly significant with normal.

For paired group of t test sodium, copper and zinc in epi-

leptic cases were also strongly significant with normal.

It has also been calculated the multiple correlation co-

efficient and regression correlation coefficients between

Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe, and Zn and found that the value

of RNa.KCa and RFe.CuZn is less than normal control, while

other correlation such as RK.NaCa, RCa.KNa, RMg.NaK, RNa.MgK,

RK.MgNa, RCu.FeZn and RZn.FeCu are found to be higher than

normal values and strongly correlated with each other.

The levels of trace elements of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Fe,

and Zn are found to be higher in all epileptic cases, in

comparison to normal healthy control. A major factor in

epilepsy has been found to be essential mineral deficien-

cies and imbalances such as magnesium, zinc, calcium,

sodium, potassium etc. Some of the main mechanisms of

toxic effects of metal include cytotoxicity, change in

cellular membrance, permeability, inhibition of enzymes,

coenzymes, and hormones, generation of free radicals,

which result in neurotoxicity, immuno-toxicity, impaired

cellular respiration, metabolic effects hormonal effects.

In present findings the essential mineral imbalance

have been found to be a major factor in epilepsy and

correct mineral balance has been found to cause signifi-

cant improvement in epilepsy.

Supplementation alternations are often beneficial in

treatment of seizures and epilepsy. B vitamins, essential

minerals, some herbs products, some amino acids, and

essentials fatty acids alternation are beneficial to reduce

seizures.

From obtained result the levels of trace element are

Open Access OJAppS

S. KUMAR ET AL. 473

increased so that both proper medication and supplement

alteration will be effective in the treatment of the epi-

lepsy.

7. Acknowledgements

Authors are thankful to Dr. P. K. Saxena Principal,

D.A.V. College, Muzaffarnagar, U.P. for providing nec-

essary conditions to carry research.

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