Vol.2, No.4, 171-181 (2013) Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aad.2013.24022
Disorders of cerebrovascular angioarchitectonics
and microcirculation in the etiology and
pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease
Ivan V. Maksimovich
Clinic of Cardiovascular Diseases Named after Most Holy John Tobolsky, Moscow, Russia;
Received 3 August 2013; revised 16 September 2013; accepted 25 September 2013
Copyright © 2013 Ivan V. Maksimovich. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
There have recently appeared many reports de-
dicated to cerebral hemodynamics disorders in
AD. However, certain specific aspects of cere-
bral blood flow and microcirculation during this
disease are not fully understood. This research
focuses on the identification of particular fea-
tures of cerebral angioarchitectonics and micro-
circulation at preclinical and clinical AD stages
and on the determination of their importance in
AD etiology and pathogenesis. 164 patients par-
ticipated in the research: Test Group—81 pa-
tients with different AD stages; Control Group—
83 patients with etiologically different neurode-
generative brain lesions with manifestations of
dementia and cognitive impairment but without
AD. All patients underwent: assessment of cog-
nitive function (MMSE), severity of dementia (CDR)
and AD stages (TDR), laboratory examination,
computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), brain scintigraphy (SG), rheoen-
cephalography (REG) and cerebral multi-gated
angiography (MUGA). All Test Group patients,
irrespective of their AD stage, had abnormalities
of the cerebral microcirculation manifested in
dyscirculatory angiopathy of Alzheimer’s type
(DAAT), namely: reduction of th e ca pi llary be d in
the hippocampus and frontal-parietal regions;
development of multiple arterio-venous shunts
in the same regions; early venous dumping of
arterial blood through these shunts with simul-
taneous filling of arteries and veins; develop-
ment of abnormally enlarged lateral venous
trunks that receive blood from the arterio-ven-
ous shunts; anomalous venous congestion at
the border of frontal and parietal region; in-
creased loop formation of distal intracranial ar-
terial branches. Control group patients did not
have combinations of such changes. These ab-
normalities are specific for AD and can affect
amyloid beta metabolism contributing to its ac-
cumulation in the brain tissue and thereby sti-
mulating AD progression.
Keywords: Alzheimer’s D isease; Dementia, TDR;
Microcirculation; Microcirculatory Disorders;
Dyscirculatory Angiopathy of Alzheimer’s Type;
DAAT
1. INTRODUCTION
According to the Alzheimer’s Association in 2013,
one of eight Americans older than 60 has memory im-
pairments [1]. The number of patients suffering from
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been constantly growing
in different parts of the world. In the US alone, the num-
ber of patients with AD aged 65 and older is expected to
increase from 5.4 million to 13.8 - 16 million by 2050
[2].
AD has for long been considered a purely neurode-
generative disease, so the research has mainly focused on
structural changes in the brain tissue during this disease
[3-5]. The introduction of such radiological methods as
CT, MRI and PET has made great progress in neuroi-
maging allowing to study in vivo the changes that occur
in the brain tissue during various neurodegenerative pro-
cesses as well as to differentiate various structural le-
sions [6-9]. The use of biomarkers in the diagnosis of
AD has recently allowed visualizing the accumulation of
amyloid-beta and tau [10-13].
Compared to research aimed at understanding mor-
phological lesions, the study of the brain vascular system
in AD is much less developed. Back in the 1930s, F.
Morel, using the material of postmortem autopsy, re-
vealed the presence of cerebral vascular changes in AD

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181
172
and described dysoric or drusoidal angiopathy [14]. His
extremely important study went unnoticed, and there has
been practically no research in this area [15]. Only re-
cently there have appeared significant studies aimed at
investigating cerebral blood flow abnormalities in AD
[16-21] which has resulted in the overall recognition of
the fact that hypoperfusion and changes in the morphol-
ogy of capillaries are involved in the etiology and pa-
thogenesis of AD [22-28].
As a result, there have appeared several hypotheses
concerning the role of microvascular changes in the eti-
opathogenesis of the disease [28-36] which points to the
need for further research in this area. It has recently been
repeatedly stated in the guidelines of the National Insti-
tute on Aging/Alzheimer’s Association [37,38].
The ongoing studies are mainly based on post-mortem
autopsy material [39,40], research on genetically modi-
fied animals [26,28,41], identification of cerebral perfu-
sion by means of scintigraphy (SG) [42], single-photon
emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emis-
sion tomography (PET) [27,43], perfusion weighted
magnetic resonance imaging (Perfusion MRI or PWI)
[27].
All these methods have their pros and cons, but they
do not reflect the true antemortem state of arterial, ve-
nous and microvascular system of the brain in AD.
Pathomorphological research allows of histological,
cytological and cytochemical analysis of the brain. Re-
search conducted on transgenic animals allows to explore
models of the disease. Antemortem study of cerebral
blood flow abnormalities is difficult enough. SPECT,
PET and Perfusion MRI demonstrate average results and
show the perfusion of the whole brain being unable to
visualize the cerebral vascular system.
The present research focuses on visualizing by means
of MUGA the features of cerebral angioarchitectonics
and on microcirculatory disorders occurring at both pre-
clinical AD stage and during its progress, as well as on
comparison of these disorders with the changes in the
vascular system of the brain in patients suffering from
other common neurodegenerative diseases. The objective
of this research is to systematize cerebrovascular disor-
ders in AD.
2. METHODS
2.1. Patient Selection
The whole research has been carried out with the ap-
proval of the Ethics Committee and with the consent of
the examined patients and their relatives.
The research involved 164 patients from 28 to 79
years old (average age 67.5), 76 (46.34%) male and 88
(53.66%) female patients, suffering from various neu-
rodegenerative brain lesions accompanied by the devel-
opment of dementia and cognitive impairment of varying
severity.
2.2. Patient Examination
The examination plan included the following methods:
● Assessment of cognitive functions was conducted by
means of Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)
[44].
● Clinical determination of the severity of dementia
was made according to the Clinical Dementia Rating
scale (CDR) [45].
● Tomographic identification of AD stages was per-
formed among Test Group patients using the Tomo-
graphy Dementia Rating scale (TDR) during CT and
MRI examination [46-49]. This method allows to de-
termine not only clinical but also pre-clinical AD
stages by the determination of the severity of atrophic
changes in the temporal lobes of the brain.
● Laboratory examination was performed according to
the schemes generally accepted in iterventional neu-
roangiology including coagulologic, biochemical and
clinical tests.
● Scintigraphy (SG) of the brain was carried out on a
gamma camera (Ohio Nuclear, US) following the
classical method in dynamic and static mode with TC
99M pertechnetat 555 [20,21,30,32].
● Rheoencephalography (REG) was conducted by means
of “Reospektr-8” (Neurosoft, Russia) in accordance
with the standard automated method with the identi-
fication of abnormalities of pulse blood flow in the
cerebral hemispheres [22,32].
● CT and MRI of the brain were performed on “Soma-
tom” (Siemens), “Hi Speed” (GE), “Tomoscan” (Phi-
lips), “Apetro Eterna” (Hitachi) following the ATAA
(Advance Tomo Area Analysis) procedure allowing
to determine the volume of the temporal lobes of the
brain with subsequent determination of the severity of
the degree of atrophy as a percentage from the total
natural weight of the unaffected lobe tissue [21,
46-48].
● Cerebral multi-gated angiography (MUGA) of the
brain was performed on apparatus “Advantx” (GE)
following the classical method of transfemoral access.
Synchronously, taking into account the start and rate
of administration, 10 - 12 ml of Omnipack 350 was
introduced intra-carotidally and 7 - 8 ml intra-verte-
brally. The registration was carried out in direct and
side projections in constant subtraction mode at a
speed of 25 frames per second. Further on, frame
by frame analysis of the angiograms received in
each phase contrast was conducted [20,21,32,42].
Capillary density contrast analysis was performed
at the corresponding phase by means of an auto-
matic method using computer program “Angio vi-
sion” based on the determination of the degree of

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181 173
blackening of the corresponding part of the image
[20,21,42].
2.3. Test Group
81 (49.39%) patients from 34 to 79 years of age (av-
erage age 67), 28 (34.57%) male and 53 (65.43%) female,
suffering from various AD stages who, according to The
Clinical Dementia Rating scale (CDR) [45] and the To-
mography Dementia Rating scale (TDR) [46-49] classi-
fications, were divided into:
● Pre-clinical AD stage—TDR-0: a group of patients
with a high risk of developing the disease who had
initial involutive changes in the brain accompanied
by growing memory disorders and each of whom had
direct relatives suffering from AD. These patients did
not have pronounced manifestations of dementia or
serious cognitive impairment; however, the atrophy
of the temporal lobes in the group amounted to
4.8% (26 - 28 MMSE points)—9 (11.11%) patients
[46-49];
● Early AD stage—TDR-1: a group with mild dementia,
mild cognitive impairment, had previously been di-
agnosed with AD, history of the disease did not to
exceed 2 years, the atrophy of the temporal lobes was
9% - 18% which corresponds to CDR-1 (20 - 25
MMSE points)—24 (29.63%) patients;
● Middle AD stage—TDR-2: a group with mild demen-
tia, sufficiently persistеnt cognitive impairment, had
previously been diagnosed with AD, medical history
of 2 to 6 years, the atrophy of the temporal lobes was
19% - 32% which corresponds to CDR-2 (12 - 19
MMSE points)—31 (38.27%) patients;
● Late AD stage—TDR-3: a group with fairly severe
dementia, gross cognitive impairment, had previously
been diagnosed with AD, medical history of 7 to 12
years, the atrophy of the temporal lobes was 33% -
62% which corresponds to CDR-3 (7-11 MMSE
points)—17 (20.99%) patients.
2.4. Control Group
83 (50.61%) patients from 28 to 78 years of age (av- er-
age age 68), 48 (57.83%) male and 35 (42.17%) female
patients, with etiologically different neurodegenerative brain
lesions accompanied by manifestations of dementia and
cognitive impairment of varying severity but without AD.
These patients were divided into the following groups:
● A group with the initial stage of chronic cerebrovas-
cular insufficiency of atherosclerotic genesis without
any signs of persistent dementia or cognitive impair-
ment. Those patients had individual complaints re-
vealing abnormalities of cerebral hemodynamics—
19 (22.89%) patients of whom 7 patients had CDR-1;
● A group with sufficiently severe chronic cerebrovas-
cular insufficiency of atherosclerotic genesis without
gross occlusive vascular lesions of the brain. Those
patients had MCI and the symptoms of mild begin-
ning dementia—18 (21.69%) patients of whom 13
had CDR-1 and 5 had CDR-2;
● A group with multiple atherosclerotic lesions of the
brain, severe vascular dementia and cognitive im-
pairment. Those patients’ medical history showed re-
current transient abnormalities of cerebral blood flow
and minor strokes—17 (20.48%) patients of whom 11
had CDR-2 and 6 had CDR-3;
● A group with atherosclerotic (vascular) Parkinson’s
disease and manifestations of dementia—19 (22.89%)
patients of whom 10 had CDR-1 and 9 had CDR-2;
● A group with Binswanger’s disease and manifesta-
tions of dementia—6 (7.23%) patients of whom 1 had
CDR-1, 2 had CDR-2 and 3 had CDR-3;
● A group with Parkinson’s disease and manifestations
of dementia—4 (4.82%) patients of whom 1 had
CDR-1 and 3 had CDR-2.
3. RESULTS
3.1. Test Group
According to CT and MRI:
● AD-specific neurodegenerative changes in the brain
manifested in temporal lobes atrophy which at dif-
ferent stages of the disease lead to 4% - 62% reduc-
tion in tissue mass were detected in 81 (100%) cases
(Table 1);
● individual cerebral neurodegenerative changes were
observed in a limited number of cases (Table 1).
According to SG, the slowing of blood flow in the ce-
rebral hemispheres was detected in 81 (100%) cases.
According to REG, pulse blood volume reduction in
the carotid system was detected in 81 (100%) cases.
Elevated level of lipids in the blood was detected in 34
(41.98%) cases.
Hypercoagulation was observed in 37 (45.68%) cases.
● Absence (or they were poorly expressed) of athero-
sclerotic changes of extra and intracranial arteries—
81 (100%) patients (Figu res 1, 2 and 6);
● Reduction of capillary contrast phase in the form of
microvascular cone-shaped spots in the projection of
the hippocampus and the fronto-parietal regions—81
(100%) patients (Figur es 1 -3);
● Multiple arterio-venous shunts in the region of the an-
terior villous artery supplying the hippocampus and in
the region of the arterial branches supplying the fronto-
parietal cortex—81 (100%) patients (Figur es 1, 2 and 4);
● Early venous dumping of arterial blood with simulta-
neous filling of the arteries and veins in the temporal
and fronto-parietal brain regions—81 (100%) patients
(Figure 2);
● The development of abnormally enhanced lateral
venous trunks that receive blood from the arterio-

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174
Table 1. CT and MRI data in test and control group patients.
Number of Patients: N-164 Test Group
(Alzheimer’s Disease): N-81 Control Group (Other Brain Lesions): N-83 p (Chi-Square)
Atrophic Chan g e s i n the Temporal Lobes of the Brain
4% - 8% Reduction of the temporal
lobes of the brain—TDR-0 9 0 0.0054
9% - 18% Reduction of the temporal
lobes of the brain—TDR-1 24 0 <0.005
19% - 32% Reduction of the temporal
lobes of the brain—TDR-2 31 0 <0.005
33% - 62% Reduction of the temporal
lobes of the brain—TDR-3 17 0 <0.005
General Cerebral Changes
Multiple deposits of calcium salts
in intracranial vessels 0 79 <0.005
Multiple postischemic macrocysts (over 5 mm) 0 17 <0.005
Postischemic macrocysts (3 - 5 mm) 0 48 <0.005
Leucoaraiosis 0 25 <0.005
Expansion of Sylvian fissures 81 57 <0.005
Reduction of the temporal lobes of the
brain by 0% - 5% in patients older than 60 0 36 <0.005
General neurodegenerative cortex changes 31 49 0.012
Unocclusive hydrocephalus 50 48 0.727 (none)
An analysis of 2 × 2 contingency tables for each of the parameters under study was made using the chi-square test which showed statistically significant differ-
ences for each of the parameters under study except for unocclusive hydrocephalus.
Figure 1. Patient Sh., 68 years old. Angiogram of the right in-
ternal carotid artery; TDR-3; lateral projection, arterial phase;
Absence of atherosclerotic changes of intracranial vessels. 1:
Development of hypovascular region; 2: Multiple arteriovenous
shunts in fronto-parietal and temporal regions.
venous shunts in the temporal and fronto-parietal re-
gion—73 (90.12%) patients (Figure 5);
● Anomalous venous congestion at the border of frontal
and parietal lobe caused by the increased blood flow
from the arterio-venous shunts—74 (91.36%) patients
(Figures 5 and 6);
● Increased looping of distal intracranial arterial branches—
64 (79.02%) patients (Figure 3).
3.2. Control Group
According to CT and MRI:
● changes in the brain manifested in the local atrophy
of the temporal lobes (specific to AD) were not iden-
tified in any case (Table 1);
● cerebral neurodegenerative changes were found in
almost all cases (Table 1).
According to SG, the slowing of blood flow in the ce-
rebral hemispheres was detected in all 83 (100%) cases.
According to REG, pulse blood volume reduction
in the carotid system was detected in all 83 (100%)
cases.
Elevated level of lipids in the blood was detected in 71
(85.54%) cases.
Hypercoagulation was observed in 65 (78.31%) cases.
Cerebral MUGA revealed the following disorders (Ta-
ble 2):
● atherosclerotic changes of intracranial arteries—80
(96.39%) cases;
● stenotic lesions of intracranial branches—63 (75.90%)
patients;
● occlusive lesions of intracranial branches—22 (26.51%)
patients;
● reduction of capillary phase contrast with typical
boundaries in the projection of the hippocampus and

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181 175
Figure 2. Patient O., 72 years old. Angiogram of the left inter-
nal carotid artery; TDR-2; lateral projection, capillary phase;
Absence of atherosclerotic changes of intracranial vessels. 1:
Development of hypovascular area; 2: Multiple arterioven-
ous shunts in fronto-parietal and temporal regions; 3: The
development of early venous discharge in the temporal and
fronto-parietal region. Simultaneous filling of arteries and
veins.
Figure 3. Patient P., 75 years old. Angiogram of the right in-
ternal carotid artery; TDR-3; lateral projection, early arterial
phase; Absence of atherosclerotic changes of intracranial ves-
sels. 1: Development of hypovascular area; 6: Multiple loop
formation.
fronto-parietal regions were not detected in any case;
● multiple arterio-venous shunts in the basin of the
Figure 4. Patient P., 75 years old. Angiogram of the left inter-
nal carotid artery; TDR-3; lateral projection, capillary phase; 2:
Multiple arteriovenous shunts in fronto-parietal and temporal
regions.
Figure 5. Patient P., 75 years old. Angiogram of the right in-
ternal carotid artery; TDR-3; lateral projection, venous phase; 4:
The development of pathologically enlarged veins that receive
blood from arteriovenous shunts in the temporal and fronto-
parietal region; 5: Blood congestion on the border of the fronto-
parietal region.
front villous artery and in the basin of the arterial
branches supplying the fronto-parietal cerebral cortex
were not detected in any case;
● some scattered areas of low capillary contrast at the
level of the white matter of the brain—36 (43.37%)

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181
176
Figure 6. Patient S., 45 years old. Angiogram of the right in-
ternal carotid artery; TDR-1; lateral projection, venous phase; 5:
Blood congestion on the border of the fronto-parietal region.
patients;
● multiple scattered arterio-venous shunts at the level
of the white matter of the brain—37 (44.58%) pa-
tients;
● scattered, mainly in the white matter, early venous
dumping—38 (45.78%) patients;
● development of abnormally enhanced venous trunks
and anomalous venous congestion was not detected in
any case;
● increased loop formation of distal intracranial arterial
branches—5 (6,02%) patients.
Thus, Control Group patients did not have any vascular
and microcirculatory disorders of the brain similar to those
detected among Test Group patients (Figures 7 and 8).
4. DISCUSSION
For antemortem studies of the brain vascular system,
cerebral MUGA has been used. Due to its specificity and
high image resolution, the method allows to obtain high
quality vascular imaging and provides an opportunity for
stepwise study of the state of the arterial, capillary, ve-
nous bed and the architectonics of the existing arterial
and venous shunts and blood flows [20,21,30,32,50]. By
means of this method we were able to detect AD-specific
disorders of blood circulation and microcirculation in the
temporal and fronto-parietal brain regions among Test
Group patients.
We have named those disorders “dyscirculatory an-
giopathy of Alzheimer’s type” (DAAT) [32,50]. They do
not occur among Control Group patients, and they are
specific for AD and non-specific for other neurodegen-
erative diseases accompanied by the development of de-
mentia and cognitive impairment.
DAAT is the combination of the following:
● reduction of the capillary bed in the temporal and
fronto-parietal brain regions;
● development of multiple arterio-venous shunts in the
basin of the front villous artery supplying the hippo-
campus and in the basin of the arterial branches sup-
plying the fronto-parietal brain regions;
● early venous dumping of arterial blood through these
shunts with simultaneous filling of the arteries and
veins in the temporal and fronto-parietal regions;
● development of abnormally enlarged lateral venous
branches that receive blood from the arterio-venous
shunts in the temporal and fronto-parietal region;
● anomalous venous stasis on the border of the frontal
and parietal lobe due to excessively high blood influx
from the arterio-venous shunts;
● increased loop formation of distal intracranial arterial
branches.
In fact, DAAT is a vascular sign of AD and is an im-
portant criterion in the differential diagnosis of neurode-
generative diseases [21,32,50].
The obtained data concerning the capillary disorders in
AD is confirmed by morphological studies conducted by
S. J. Baloiannis and I. S. Baloiannis [51]. These authors
used electron microscopy to reveal capillary degenera-
tion and a significant decrease in the number of capillar-
ies per cubic centimeter of the hippocampus tissue in
patients with AD compared to the hippocampus tissue in
people of the same age but without the disease.
In our opinion, DAAT progress begins with abnorma-
lities of the cerebral microcirculation which are mani-
fested in capillary bed reduction which leads to the re-
duction of arterial blood flow to the cerebral tissues. The
result of it is chronic hypoperfusion of the temporal and
fronto-parietal regions which causes AD-specific brain
tissue hypoxia; that is also supported by other authors’
studies [28]. The process of capillary bed reduction is
accompanied by a compensatory opening of arterio-ve-
nous shunts which relieve the arterial bed by dumping
blood to the venous bed.
Such compensatory opening of arterio-venous shunts
is observed in various human organs and tissues during
the reduction of arterial blood flow—for example, in
peripheral arterial occlusions [52]. Opening arterio-ven-
ous shunts cause arterio-venous dumping and allow to
balance the inflow and outflow of blood to the site with
reduced arterial or capillary permeability.
With AD, the overflow of arterial bed by venous blood
leads to abnormal enlargement of the lateral veins of the
temporal and fronto-parietal region and subsequent blood
congestion.
These hemodynamic changes may in their turn affect

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181 177
Table 2. Vascular disorders of the brain identified among patients of the Test and Control Groups during MUGA.
Number of Patients: N-164
Test Group
(Alzheimer’s Disease):
N-81
Control Group
(Other Brain Lesions):
N-83
p (Chi-Square)
Atherosclerotic changes of intracranial arteries 0 80 <0.005
Reduction of capillaries in the temporal
and fronto-parietal regions 81 0 <0.005
Multiple arteriovenous shunts in the
temporal and fronto-parietal regions 81 0 <0.005
Early venous dumping of arterial blood in the temporal and
fronto-parietal region 81 0 <0.005
Development of abnormally enlarged lateral
venous branches in the temporal and fronto-parietal regions 73 0 <0.005
Abnormal congestion of venous blood at the border
of the temporal and fronto-parietal lobe 74 0 <0.005
Increased loop-formation of distal intracranial branches 64 5 <0.005
Stenotic lesions of intracranial branches 0 63 <0.005
Occlusive lesions of intracranial branches 0 22 <0.005
Scattered areas of low capillary contrast at
the level of the white matter of the brain 0 36 <0.005
Scattered arteriovenous shunts at the
level of the white matter of the brain 0 37 <0.005
Early venous dumping in the white matter of the brain 0 38 <0.005
An analysis of 2 × 2 contingency tables for each of the parameters under study was made using the chi-square test which showed statistically significant differ-
ences for each of the parameters under study.
Figure 7. Patient P., 61 years old. Angiogram of the left inter-
nal carotid artery; lateral projection, arterial phase; Diagnosis:
atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels, chronic cerebrovascular in-
sufficiency, CDR-1 Mild atherosclerotic changes; Good opa-
cification of capillaries, absence of hypovascular areas in the
temporal and fronto-parietal regions; Absence of multiple arte-
rio-venous shunts in the temporal and fronto-parietal regions;
Absence of simultaneous filling of arteries and veins.
the metabolism of amyloid-beta and cause its deposition
and accumulation in cerebral tissue thereby stimulating
AD progression [21,30,32].
Figure 8. Patient P., 61 years old. Angiogram of the right in-
ternal carotid artery; lateral projection, venous phase; Diagnosis:
atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels, chronic cerebrovascular in-
sufficiency, CDR-1 Absence of pathologically enlarged veins
that receive blood from arteriovenous shunts in the temporal
and fronto-parietal region; Absence of blood congestion on the
border of the fronto-parietal region.
Our hypothesis is confirmed by the work by B. V.
Zlokovic et al. [53,54] in which the authors, carrying out
research on genetically modified mice, have shown that
an experimental model of AD is characterized by the

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181
178
accumulation of vasculotoxic and neurotoxic molecules
in the brain tissue which causes hemodynamic instability,
reduces capillary blood flow and promotes the develop-
ment of specific cerebral hypoxia. This process leads to
an increase in accumulation and a decrease in removal of
beta amyloid, subsequent dysfunction and neurodegen-
eration.
The data obtained resonate with research by A. Dorr et
al. [26] conducted on transgenic mice with an experi-
mental model of AD. In the study of the material the au-
thors revealed degeneration, diameter reduction and in-
creased sinuosity of microvessels in the cortex of tested
animals which was interpreted as the result of beta-
amyloid deposition in the vascular wall and parovazal
tissue.
According to our results obtained among Test Group
patients, the severity of arterial, venous, and microvas-
cular abnormalities does not depend on the timing of the
onset of AD symptoms, severity of dementia or severity
of cognitive impairment [21,30,32]. These abnormalities
are almost equally observed among patients with clinical
AD stages (TDR-1, TDR-2, TDR-3) and among those
with a preclinical AD stage (TDR-0). Moreover, similar
changes occur among children of 8-12 years of age and
among AD patients’ children [55,56]. It suggests that
microvascular changes in the brain are likely to develop
before the process of beta-amyloid deposition. It seems
unlikely that in genetically determined and sporadic
forms of AD, beta-amyloid deposition in the vascular
wall and brain tissue starts early, decades before any
clinical manifestations of the disease.
Interestingly, there are studies that show that the high
content of amyloid-beta in the brain tissue can be ob-
served in healthy people and does not always lead to
dementia and AD [57].
For antemortem studies of CBF and cerebral perfusion
abnormalities in AD, SPECT, PET and MRI technologies
are usually used being at present not sensitive enough to
determine vascular and microcirculatory abnormalities,
and therefore it is difficult to identify these abnormalities
in 100% of cases [27,58]. In contrast to MUGA, these
technologies do not allow to visualize the vascular sys-
tem of the brain and to explore its parts locally deter-
mining the state of the arteries, capillaries and veins.
They allow to determine total perfusion in a certain area,
lobe or in the whole brain.
However, studies using SPECT and PET have shown
that progression of AD and cognitive impairment is cha-
racterized by a progressive decline of CBF in the tempo-
ral, parietal and frontal regions [27,59]; we have ob-
tained similar results not only by means of MUGA but
also by means of SG and REG.
When using Perfusion MRI technologies to determine
cerebral perfusion, it should be noted that this method,
though more progressive compared to SPECT and PET,
also does not allow to determine the state of the local
vascular system in certain areas of the cerebral tissue. As
a result, as well as when using SPECT and PET, total
perfusion is determined in some area or lobe of the brain.
This particularity of Perfusion MRI technology has led to
the appearance of reports describing compensatory en-
hancement of cerebral perfusion at preclinical and early
AD stages but persistent hypoperfusion in the later stages
of the disease [27], which potentially confirms our data.
As we have already noted, DAAT progression leads to
natural compensatory opening of arterio-venous shunts
with sufficiently powerful dumping of arterial blood to
the venous bed. Preclinical and early clinical AD stages
progress at a younger age, when compensatory mecha-
nisms regulating CBF are expressed better, the deposi-
tion of amyloid-beta in the brain tissue being quite small.
In this case, when determining the perfusion by means of
Perfusion MRI technology, total perfusion is visualized
in the temporal lobes of the brain including the compen-
satory powerful dumping of arterial blood into the ve-
nous bed as well. As a result, the obtained numbers may
exceed the norm. Obviously, that was what the authors
have received interpreting it as enhanced perfusion due
to more active work of arteries and capillaries. Late AD
stages occur in old age, when compensatory mechanisms
of CBF regulation decrease and there is high accumula-
tion of amyloid-beta in the brain tissue which helps to
reduce CBF. As a result, the authors have observed the
phenomenon of cerebral hypoperfusion which confirms
our data.
Vascular and microvascular changes in AD are always
associated with a decrease in size and with atrophic
phenomena in the temporal and fronto-parietal brain re-
gions [32,47-50]. It is interesting to note that the ten-
dency for temporal lobes size reduction has been re-
ported in new-born babies who have a high potential risk
for the disease, from which the authors conclude that
these changes begin to progress in utero [60].
These data indirectly confirm our hypothesis that
DAAT is likely to develop before the deposition of amy-
loid-beta, its excretion process being affected, which
may possibly lead to its accumulation. DAAT does not
cause but only contributes to AD, and may perhaps be
congenital in nature [55,56].
Thus, we can conclude that the reduction of the capil-
lary bed, abnormal cerebral microcirculation, as well as
the accumulation of amyloid-beta are interrelated proc-
esses that occur early enough, proceed for a long time,
lead to hypotrophic and atrophic changes in the tissue of
the temporal and fronto-parietal regions and finally cause
AD.
The combination of these changes must be taken into
consideration in the examination of patients with AD, the

I. V. Maksimovich / Advances in Alzheimer’s Disease 2 (2013) 171-181 179
monitoring of the disease course and, naturally, in the
development of new methods for treating AD [21,28,30,
32,36,42].
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