Energy and Power Engineering
Vol.07 No.05(2015), Article ID:56323,9 pages
10.4236/epe.2015.75019
Energy Planning: Brazilian Potential of Generation of Electric Power from Urban Solid Wastes―Under “Waste Production Liturgy” Point of View
Neilton Fidelis da Silva1,2,3, Angela
1Energy Planning Program (PPE), Coordination of Postgraduate Programs in Engineering at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (COPPE/UFRJ), Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2International Virtual Institute of Global Change―IVIG, Centro de Tecnologia, Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
3Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio Grande do Norte (IFRN), Natal, Brazil
Email: *giannini@cepel.br
Copyright © 2015 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
Received 7 January 2015; accepted 12 May 2015; published 14 May 2015
ABSTRACT
The use of Urban Solid Waste (USW) as sources of energy has acquired rising importance in current discussions of alternative energy supplies, in particular in Brazil. This paper brings to these discussions an examination of the concept of solid wastes, including their historic origins and formation, taking their social, economic and cultural characteristics into account, including point view of waste production liturgy. Consequently, a spendthrift society slanted towards the decreasing
Keywords:
Urban Solid Wastes, Renewable Energy, Energy Planning, Brazil
1. Introduction
From a systemic standpoint, the definition of solid wastes may be presented as the outcome of poorly balanced flows of certain elements in a specific ecological system, implying the instability of the system itself. However, once the orderly arrangements between the whole and the parts of an ecosystem have been taken into consideration through relations based on complementarity, with all the parts dependent on the life-cycles of the others, additional elements blur the definition of the concept of solid wastes, “as elements produced by the metabolisms of organisms or their life cycles could may be used as nutrients by other organisms, thus perpetrating the life of the system” [1] .
Among all the many different ways of identifying an element distinguishing human beings from animals, Marx selects the capacity to produce their means of existence, a skill granted only to humans and the hallmark of this distinction [2] . Marx affirms:
“by producing their means of existence, human beings indirectly produce their
However, the way in which human beings produce their “material lives” necessarily depends “on the nature of the means of existence already found, and that they need to reproduce” [2] . The human development process has always been closely linked to the expansion of mastery over the exploitation and use of the resources available in Nature. The imbalances imposed on the environment in the form of solid wastes
The process of human occupancy of the land is spurred by a steadily expanding population, followed by an equally steady expansion of settled regions. Solid wastes generated as by-products of human activities soon outstrip the possibilities of dilution, regeneration and reintegration of the elements in the
During the XX century, visible alterations of a qualitative and quantitative order were imposed on urban arrangements and functions. These changes boosted the
The problems caused by higher output of USW
The development model adopted by modern society and the pace of its progress
Modern life styles have stepped up and concentrated family demands for goods through widespread use of household appliances, incentives for
“The notorious ‘planned obsolescence’ of ‘consumer durables’ that
For Mészáros [3] , the decreasing usage rate law is historically endowed with a civilizatory importance:
“the movement that made two pairs of shoes available to workers instead of a single pair may certainly be rated as positive, regardless of the hidden
With this same approach, Marx [2] , affirms:
“Despite all ‘pious’, discourses, he [the capitalist] seeks ways of encouraging [the workers] to consume, trying to endow his products with new charms, triggering new needs through non-stop advertising etc. It is exactly this aspect of the relationship between
However, destructive repercussions are inherent to the decreasing use rate law―a
Within this context, it is noted that the possibilities of stepping up production, as a result of the civilizatory potential based on progress in science and technology,
According to Mészáros [3] waste production liturgy can be defined:
“the positive
It is a known fact that consumption styles vary drastically between the more and less developed nations, with very marked differences also apparent between urban and
In today’s world, there
This article is divided into five sections. In Section II, the theme of urban solid wastes and the waste production liturgy are presented. Section III discusses the use of USW to generate energy in Brazil considering the potential and stored. Finally, Section VI offers conclusions and recommendations.
2. Urban Solid Wastes and the Waste Production Liturgy
The human body houses the most complex energy conversion system used by humankind. Through digestion, the chemical energy found in foods is processed into heat, as well as muscle and brain energy. Outside their own bodies, human beings work with two basic forms of energy conversion: organic
The hallmarks of energy resources and their uses are reflected in the freedom of movement they offer through extending the reach and strength of human beings. The earliest exteriorization processes expanded the use of muscle power and the heat generated in the human body [4] .
For Freud [5] , this exteriorization process―consisting of the development of knowledge used in the formation of transformation capacity and control of nature―proved to be a major civilizatory trend, together with the rules and actions regulating the distribution of these created values:
“If we look back sufficiently far into the past, we discover that the earliest acts of civilization involved using tools, learning to control fire, and building shelters. Among them, controlling fire stands out as an extraordinary and unprecedented accomplishment, as others opened up paths that human beings have been following since then. Through each tool, man recreates his own motor or sensory organs, extending the scope of his functions. Motor capacity places massive forces at his fingertips that he can deploy through his muscles: thanks to ships and aircraft, neither water nor air can hamper his movements”.
For Marx [6] , by exteriorizing his body, “man turns something in Nature into an organ of his own activity, an organ added to his own body organs, extending his
During the process of building up a usage model for the resources available in nature, human beings were continually exteriorizing their bodies, replacing hard-to-handle organic
Consolidating the capitalistic production mode, the Industrial Revolution was a watershed in production relations, particularly through energy systems that were structured in earlier times and had to underpin the entire goods production and re-production framework. Ending the unchallenged supremacy of biological energy sources, the Industrial Revolution paved the way for the triumphant march of hegemonic fossil fuels.
“The steam engine rearranged the relations between man and energy. The clock, the windmill and the watermill used forces within a context that left them intact; in contrast, the ‘combustion engine’ consumes the
The driving force behind the
Within this context, the use of coal become more important worldwide, while energy production forged steadily ahead in response to rising demands spurred by the industrialization process.
“For XXI century capitalism, energy production acquired an unprecedented elasticity through the widespread use of non-renewable fossil fuels and the progress of transportation: from this
Since the XIX century, the importance of re-using consumer goods has been discussed in society. It is known that certain goods (or parts of them) can be used in other products or to make new items. The economic system in effect at that time viewed the
The importance of
The rising participation of machines in the means of production requires constant updating, in order to keep them as modern as possible. The outcome of this quest for the “new” is that they become obsolete, often before the end of their useful lives. The
Goods become viewed as old when the
It is important to note that this increase in productivity is not viewed askance, and is good and desirable, according to certain standards. However, gains in productivity trigger alterations in consumption standards in a throwaway society, making it hard to pinpoint the perfect balance point between production and consumption. Although society should ideally take steps to ensure that most of its resources
“The dropping usage rate assumes a dominant position in the capitalist structure of the socio-economic metabolism, notwithstanding the fact that astronomical quantities of wastes must be now produced in order to impose some of their most disconcerting manifestations on society” [3] .
As human beings have countless needs, there
The generation of waste is consequently the outcome of a society with high consumption
One of the negative outcomes inherent to the development process based on the production of goods with a dropping utility rate is what society calls garbage. Within this context, the production of solid wastes necessarily arises from rising outputs of “luxury” goods. Consequently, solid wastes are the outcomes of basic human needs, compatible with the capacity of the planet to re-absorb them within an evenly-balanced population growth model. On the one hand, proper garbage recycling, treatment or disposal is a responsibility that cannot be ignored by
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of cycle process of the solid wastes in society. Source: own elaboration based on [3] .
society, while on the other, it must find alternative ways of managing these solid wastes. This necessarily requires exploring ways of generating less USW.
According to its supporters, the use of USW to generate energy should be part of a drive to develop clean and abundant sources. For Illich [8] “the promotion of clean techniques is almost the promotion of a luxury way of producing goods that meet basic necessities” [8] in a throwaway society. Along these lines, a contradiction is noted in tagging USW as a clean source of energy, as the incentive for greater participation by this source may trigger efforts to step up USW production (or justify the
The increase in USW
For Figueiredo [1] there
“Along these lines, in addition to concerns over rising energy consumption in societies and the widespread effects on the
3. Using USW to Generate Energy: Brazil as a Case Study
3.1. Urban Solid Wastes in Brazil
Understanding the Brazilian solid waste generation structure is a basic requirement for adopting Government actions designed to shape the development of this
A particularly noteworthy characteristic of the development of the distribution of the Brazilian population (shown in Figure 2) is a massive
Brazil has continental dimensions, possessing an area of 8.5 mil-lion km2, and a population of 191 million people. Per capita income is US$ 10,414 (Purchasing Power Parity―PPP 2010), the country is governed democratically and has friendly relations with its neigh-bors. There is not perspective of ethnic or religious conflict. It is the most industrialized and diverse country in Latin America with a GDP of 2.017 trillion (PPC). According to The Economist [10] , the Brazilian economy is expected to expand from the ninth to the fifth largest in the world by 2025. Brazil also possesses major potential in terms of natural resources and the expansion of an agro- industry geared towards the external market as well as the potential of its renewable energy resource2 (solar, wind, biomass and hydraulic) and pre-salt fossil resources (destined primarily for export) [11] .
Disorderly urban expansion made regional and
Figure 2. Brazilian population (millions). Source: IBGE [9] and Figueiredo [1] .
inability of the Brazilian bourgeoisie to introduce
This
Sectors with higher purchasing power use products that
Keenly aware of all this diversity, the Technological Research Institute [13] drew up a conservative estimate showing that the average composition of Brazil’s USW consists of 65% food wastes, 25% paper, 5% plastic, 2% glass and 3% metals.
The amounts of garbage generated every day in each municipality require careful observation. Only
3.2. Energy Generation Potential
The USW volumes that might be recycled or reused for energy purposes are veiled by uncertainties, due to the difficulties of effectively measuring or even estimating these solid wastes. However, for the purpose of this exercise, the official
Among the technologies currently available, incineration is particularly noteworthy. This consists of using the calorie power stored in combustible materials found in garbage by burning it to generate steam. This naturally depends heavily on the calorie power of the USW being processed, with the use of solid wastes with higher calorie power being recommended, such as plastics, papers, etc.
The incinerator
For Brazil, looking at the amount of solid wastes mentioned above and taking an efficiency rate of 0.7 MWh/t, the amount of energy generated might well reach 45.44 TWh/year, as shown in Figure 3.
Produced through anaerobic decomposition of garbage in landfills, biogas offers another alternative way of using the energy stored in USW, possibly through open cycle plants. Once separated from the CO2, it can be used in gas turbines, performing less well than combined cycle plants, but efficient enough for energy conversion purposes. The Figure 4 summarizes the energy generation potential of this technical route in Brazil.
These findings indicate ample potential for generating electricity from solid wastes through anaerobic diges-
Figure 3. Recovery energy potential by incineration. Source: Henriques [15] .
Figure 4. Energy recovery potential with landfill gas. Source: Henriques [15] .
tion, from 19.18 TWh/year from Garbage Gas at its lowest open cycle yield to incineration at 45.44 TWh/year. This clearly shows the significant energy generation potential of these technologies on the Brazilian energy scenario.
3.3. Energy Stored in Solid Wastes
The energy required to produce a ton of plastic in Brazil hovers around 6.74 MWh/t; 4.98 MWh/t for a ton of paper; 4.83 MWh/t for a ton of glass and 6.84 MWh/t for a ton of
With the energy content required to produce a ton of garbage totaling 1.9 MWh, a demand of 110 TWh may be estimated for the
As a ton of garbage generates 0.55 MWh [14] and 0.7 MWh [16] through incineration technology, the energy generation potential of the amounts of garbage (59.07 Mt) produced in Brazil each year reaches 32.49 TWh/year for the former possibility and 45.44 TWh/year for the latter. Garbage Gas technology also has the potential to generate energy from USW in Brazil, reaching 19.18 TWh/year (Open Cycle) and 24.67 TWh/year (Combined Cycle).
4. Conclusions
The development of technologies generating energy from USW, specifically through heat conversion and/or gas production, is receiving steadily increasing amounts of attention. However, an entire cluster of concerns surrounds this discussion, related mainly to the sustainability of the planet.
Among the issues under discussion, this paper focuses on criticisms of what is known as the throwaway society, stressing that generating energy from USW can and should be planned in order to avoid dumping high- energy solid wastes in landfills. It also presents the concern that this practice may nourish and encourage a type of production based on meeting “artificial needs” and resulting in social and environmental degradation.
The development model adopted by modern society and the pace of its progress
This case study indicates that generating electricity from USW would avoid 41% of the energy expenditures needed to produce this
Figure 5. Energy required and participation of waste per ton. Source: Author’s calculation sbased on Calderoni [18] .
It is important to stress that the energy required to produce the organic fraction of the USW was not considered. Moreover, the calculations for the share held by
According to the 2013 National Energy Balance, the electricity generated in Brazil reached 552 TWh, 3.9% more than in 2012. The Brazil presents an electricity matrix predominantly renewable, and the domestic hydraulic generation accounts for 70.1% of the supply. Adding imports, which are also mainly from renewable sources, it can be stated that 85% of electricity in Brazil comes from renewable sources [19] .
When assessing the use of USW as an energy source, it was assumed that all solid wastes contain more potential energy than the energy that could be converted through the conversion technologies that
This paper is not intended to challenge energy generation through USW, but rather attempts to highlight the fact that―in a society structured on the appeal of spendthrift consumption and slanted towards a steady drop in the
The rising participation of machines in the means of production requires constant updating, in order to keep them as modern as possible. The outcome of this quest for the “new” is that they become obsolete, often before the end of their useful lives. The
In actual fact, the most efficient way of making good use of USW involves moving away from the cult of the one-way pack, redefining the model that continuously generates “new needs” and integrating energy recovery processes into management practices.
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NOTES
*Corresponding author.
1As used here, this term refers to the adoption of a type of development that guarantees at least the existence and quality of life of current social occupations and future societies. Consequently, it differs from concepts that deploy sustainable development as a tool underpinning the feasibility of entering a new capitalist expansion phase.