M. STAL
swayed public opinion against the opposition (Conquest, 1991).
To maintain his image, Stalin was always hailed as the greatest
intellect and creative force in the Soviet Union, perhaps even of
all time , and p ro-St al in pr opa ganda beca me th e norm ( Ran cou r-
Laferriere, 1998: p. 17).
Beginnings of Psychopathology
Underneath a firm façade of power, Stalin found himself
struggling with what he believed to be depression; feelings of
inferiority, alleged threats to his feelings of grandeur along with
various concerns led him to seek help. Vladimir Mikhailovich
Bekhterev, a renowned Russian psychiatrist, was summoned to
assess Stalin’s mental condition (Lerner, Margolin, & Witztum,
2005). After the critical examination that no one but Bekhterev
and Stalin witnessed, Bekhterev said only one word “para-
noiac” (Antonov-Ovseyenko, 1981). Nobody knows exactly what
happened during this examination other than what Bekhterev
disclosed concerning his examination of a “paranoiac with a
dry hand”—a clear allusion to Stalin. It is unknown how Bek-
hterev’s response reached Stalin, but it is presumed that when
Stalin heard about Bekhterev’s opinion, he ordered the death of
the person who held such an unwanted opinion of him (To-
polyansky, 1989). In 1927, Bekhterev died of an unknown
cause, although it is believed that he was poisoned by the order
of Stalin. After his death, his name and works were deleted
completely from textbooks and scientific literature (Lerner,
Margolin, & Witztum, 2005). In 1929, when addressing the
Central Committee concerning his alleged lust for tyrannical
power, Stalin dismissed the idea of his personality being an
issue by claiming that it had “no real consequence” and was a
“trifle” (Tucker, 1974). At the time, the Central Committee
accepted Stalin’s contention that his personality was irrelevant
and inadvertently strengthened his power.
Notwithstanding, Stalin’s rise to power did not satisfy his
desire for more; rather, it unveiled jealous and paranoid char-
acteristics. At this time, Stalin, although claiming to have re-
jected his Georgian background, continued following Georgian
social standards by limiting his distinction between personal
and political relationships with people. He viewed people either
as friends that he could trust, or as enemies that he must fight
and overcome. Stalin was also incredibly driven to feel jealous
of anybody who appeared better than he in any domain, espe-
cially those in which he considered himself eminent (Conquest,
1990). Although he was unwilling to accept it, Stalin’s behavior
exemplified his previous diagnosis of pathological paranoia, an
idea supported previously by Meissner (1986).
DSM-IV Assessment
Bekhterev never explicitly stated the complete diagnosis he
gave Stalin, however, comparing his opinion with a logical
analysis of Stalin’s behavior allows for a more specific conclu-
sion. According to the American Psychiatric Association, the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-
IV-TR) characterizes the core feature of a paranoid personality
disorder as a “pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of oth-
ers… motives interpreted as malevolent” (2000). People diag-
nosed with paranoid personality disorder are frequently suspi-
cious that other are attempting to exploit them, are preoccupied
with doubts about the loyalty of friends and associates, and are
reluctant to confide in others with fear that the information will
be used against them. They also perceive attacks on their char-
acter and reputation that are only evident to themselves (DSM-
IV-TR, 2000). Using the DSM-IV-TR criteria to characterize
the behavior of Joseph Stalin clearly demonstrates that his con-
duct and rationale is of a persona with paranoid personality
disorder.
Stalin’s paranoia and desire to stay in power caused him to
employ various schemes in order to control the thinking of his
fellow politicians as well as the citizens of the U. S. S. R. Al-
though immoral, he was an intelligent man who recognized that
the mind must be forged at an early age (Tucker, 1974). To
follow this ideology and ensure that all children under his re-
gime would be conformed to the Communist lifestyle as early
as possible, he created an interest group for them. In the “Pio-
neers,” membership was not voluntary; rather, it was mandated.
Through this group, children were taught about Lenin and Sta-
lin’s “greatness” and the need for a Communist lifestyle (Ser-
vice, 2001). They were also encouraged to bestow the same
information to their friends and families and to report any dis-
parate activity and thinking to a specialized police unit created
by Stalin. Stalin enforced rigorous laws that condemned disap-
proval of the government by enforcing severe penalties; those
that revealed individuals who did not agree with the Commu-
nist agenda were rewarded (Conquest, 1990).
Much of Stalin’s regime concentrated on appeasing his para-
noia, compounded by excessive consumption of alcohol. This
led him to act impulsively and dispose of anyone who did not
fit his idea for a “greater Soviet Union” (Conquest, 1991). He
was responsible for the extermination of various social groups
and political leaders of opposing parties; most of his appointed
cabinet was “disposed of” within several years of their ap-
pointments (Tucker, 1974). In spite of this, his behavior and
perceived beliefs did not cause him to question his idealized
image of himself. While failure to perceive one’s flaws is a
common human trait, Stalin’s case was extreme due to his in-
tolerance of anything short of perfection in himself. This caused
him to control the information that others received regarding
him and his regime, by means of intimidation and altering lit-
erature (Clarfiend, 2002). As previously mentioned, even pic-
tures were doctored as to conceal any physical flaws he may
have had. Due to the harsh consequences Stalin instigated for
any who contradicted him, most people learned to accept the
favored opinion rather than risk punishment or death.
Nikolai Bukharin, a former ally of Stalin who was later re-
nounced as result of a disagreement c o n c e r ning collectivi zation,
furthered the concept of Stalin’s paranoid insecurity. He ob-
served that Stalin was unhappy at not being able to convince
everyone, including himself, that he was greater than everyone
else was (Volkogonov, 1988). The paranoia that Stalin experi-
enced was not limited towards others, rather it included him;
this is allegedly caused by his suspicion that he is not as great
as he believes himself to be. This made Stalin dependent on the
attitude of others, believing that if they see him as a hero-figure,
then it is so (Volkogonov, 1988). This was one of the reasons
for his control over the media, literature and people’s rights.
Stalin ignored the fact that he was compelling them to think he
was great, and wallowed in the illusion of people’s admiration
for him (Conquest, 1990).
Culmination(s) of Psychopathology
The combination of paranoid personality disorder, alcohol
abuse, intelligence, and a cruel nature created the foundation
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