Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2013, 4, 59-68
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/fns.2013.49A2009 Published Online September 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/fns)
Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of
Local Infant Flours from Chad, with the Aim of Their
Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
Barnabas Kayalto1*, Cheikna Zongo1, Raketa W. Compaore1, Aly Savadogo1,
Brahim B. Otchom2, Alfred S. Traore1
1Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Research Center in Biological, Food and Nutritional Sciences (CRSBAN), Unit of
Formation and Research in Life and ground Sciences, University of Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; 2Department of
Biology, Faculty of Sciences (FSEA), University of N’Djamena, N’Djamena, Chad.
Received May 29th, 2013; revised June 29th, 2013; accepted July 7th, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Barnabas Kayalto et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
This study aims to develop infant flours fortified with iron and vitamin A, taken from local products such as powder
from dried Moringa oleifera leaves and pulps of Parkia biglobosa to improve the nutritional status of children aged 6 to
24 months. Chemical analyses show that, for 100 g of local flours destined for children, there are adequate protein lev-
els (between 7.00 ± 0.44 and 12.69 ± 0.44 g) and fat content (between 7.52 ± 0.35 and 16.26 ± 0.84 g), but that there are
low levels of
 -carotene and certain micronutrients Zn (0.67 ± 0.01 to 2.51 ± 0.19 mg), Fe (7.11 ± 0.90 to 12.70 ± 0.56
mg), Ca (0.67 ± 0.01 to 2.51 ± 0.19 mg), Mg (6.79 ± 0.19 to 24.99 ± 1.75 mg). Analyses of minerals and vitamins
showed that Moringa oleifera leaf-powder (per 100 g) is rich in calcium (1443.90 ± 11.03 mg), magnesium (176.72 ±
0.73 mg), iron (53.75 ± 5.07 mg), zinc (17.58 ± 0.89 mg) and
 -carotene (624.40 ± 0.41 µg ER). 100 g of Parkia biglo-
bosa’s pulps is rich in magnesium (73.00 ± 1.14 mg), iron (14.82 ± 2.49 mg), zinc (7.79 ± 0.44 mg) and vitamin C
(75.29 ± 0.00 mg). In conclusion, we believe that these two ingredients can be effectively used to fortify local infant
flours in vitamin A and iron and contribute to eradicating malnutrition due to micronutrients deficiencies.
Keywords: Childhood Flours; Nutritional Value; Hygienic Quality; Fortification; Chad
1. Introduction
The United Nations Millennium Summit [1] made hun-
ger eradication its first development goal (MDG), adop-
ting the main objective of the 1996 World Food Summit;
to reduce the number of undernourished people to half
their present level no later than 2015 [2].
However, the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) estimates that 925 million indivi-
duals suffer from hunger and that malnutrition mainly af-
fects Asia, South America and Africa, including 239 mi-
llion people in sub-Saharan Africa [3].
According to the Chad General Population and Hou-
sing Census of 2009 [4] Chad’s population is 11,175,915,
of which 993,492 live in the capital, N’Djamena. Chad’s
population growth is 3.4% per year against an average of
2.4% for the African continent.
In Chad, poverty is widespread and deep-rooted. Ac-
cording to results from the Survey on Consumption and
the Informal Sector [5], the 2003 poverty level in Chad
stands at around 396 CFA francs (less than one US dollar)
per day. About 55% of Chadians live below this poverty
line, and so are considered as poor.
From several surveys carried out in Chad, the nutri-
tional problems most frequently encountered are protein-
energy malnutrition, iron deficiency anemia, vitamin A
deficiencies and endemic goiter. More than 80% of mal-
nourished children admitted to rehabilitation and nutri-
tional education centers (CREN) in Chad were between
6 months and 2 years of age [6].
The second Chad Demographic and Health Su rvey [5]
indicated that 41% of children under 5 suffer from stun-
ted growth, about 37% are underweight and 14% suffer
from emaciation. The infant mortality rate in 2004 was
191 per 1000 live births.
*Corresponding author.

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
60
According to [7], two thirds of Chadian children be-
tween 6 and 59 months had moderate anemia (hemo-
globin rate between 7.0 g/dl and 11.0 g/dl) and 11%
showed signs of severe anemia (hemoglobin rate <7.0
g/dl). The prevalence of anemia (a combined 76% with
moderate and severe anemia) is well above the 40%
threshold, as used by the WHO to define anemia as a
severe public health problem [8].
The prevalence of a clinical vitamin A deficiency,
xerophthalmia (dry eyes), in Chadian children between
24 and 59 months is 5%, and the coverage level of vita-
min A supplements for children was 32% in 2004 [9].
Vitamin A deficiency significantly aggravates the risk
of serious illness and death from common childhood in-
fections, particularly diarrhea and measles. According to
a UN report, the improvement of vitamin A levels leads
to a 23% reduction in child mortality amongst those aged
one to five years [10]. An intake of protein and zinc is
essential for vitamin A metabolism.
In 1979, a joint WHO/UNICEF consultation on fee-
ding infants and young children recommended the pro-
motion of local products in food supplements [11].
The treatment of malnutrition in children under 5 years,
as well as its prevention, requires nutritious food, exclu-
sive breastfeeding up to six months, a healthy environ-
ment, access to health care and adequate prenatal care.
Poverty and food insecurity seriously reduce access to a
balanced diet comprising high-quality proteins, adequate
bio-available micronutrient content minerals, essential
fatty acids, low anti-nutrient levels, and a high nutritional
value [12].
From six months of age, the growth of most children
in developing countries (DCs) deviates from a satisfac
tory growth model as a result of:
 Repeated infections.
 The inadequacy of complementary feeding [13].
During infancy, an adequate nutritional diet is essen-
tial to ensure healthy human resources, and a necessary
condition for sustainable development.
To achieve the goals of the World Summit for Chil-
dren in 1990, the fight against micronutrient deficiencies
often follows four strategies: food diversification, fortifi-
cation, supplementation, and public health/hygiene mea-
sures [1].
Our study concerns the fortification aspect. It aims to
show the value of local products in improving the nutri-
tional micronutrient status of young children from 6 to 24
months, through the promotion of access to comple-
mentary foods fortified with iron and vitamin A.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling
A 3 kg sample of local infant flours was each collected
from women producers in 3 towns in Chad: in N’Dja-
ména the capital of Chad and in Bongor and Koumra
located respectively at 235 km and 670 km south of
N’Djamena (Figure 1). These flours were collected and
analyzed during the months of July 2011 and April 2012.
Table 1 gives us origin and composition of these local
infant flours.
The fresh Moringa oleifera leaves were collected in
Gounou Gaya, 400 km south west of N’Djaména.
Pulps of Parkia biglobosa, was collected from women
vendors at the market in Kélo, a town 370 km south of
N’Djaména.
2.2. The Local Preparation of Different Flours
Different local flours were made following production
charts (Figure 2) particular to each group or women’s
association.
Technology of Marie-Claire MBERBE and Ache La-
wane, social center No. 1. The following steps are the
same amongst all the women: sorting, shelling, dehulling,
drying, sieving, roasting, and mixing.
For red sorghum-based flours, from Koumra and Bon-
gor, the only operation before sorghum-milling is the
cleaning. Other differences occur at the milling stage and
at the mixing of various ingredients.
Figure 1. Sampling sites.

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
61
Pearl millet Peanuts Beans Carrots Potatoes Sugar
Sorting Sorting Sorting Cleaning Cleaning
Dehulling
Soaking
Drying
milling
Measuring
(3 cups)
2 kilos mixture
Conditioning
Measuring
(3 cups)
Roasting
Dehulling-vannage
Measuring
(3 cups)
Milling
Roasting Peeling Peeling
Dehulling Slicing Slicing
Measuring
(3 cups)
Drying in the
shade
(3days)
Drying in the
shade
(3 days)
Cleaning Cleaning
Measuring
(3 cups)
Measuring
(3 cups)
Mixing
Milling
Figure 2. Diagram of the local infant pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoid) flour processing.
For rice-based flours, local rice and carrots are treated,
ground separately, mixed with powdered sugar and con-
ditioned.
For sorghum-based flours from Bongor, red sorghum,
cowpeas, peanuts and potatoes are all processed, mixed
together and heated on the stove, then cooled and ground.

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
62
Table 1. Origin and composition of local infant flours in Chad.
Nature of meal Composition Origin
1. Local child’s red sorghum flour, Sorghum bicolor.
1) Red sorghum
2) Beans
3) Peanut butter paste
4) Sugar
Koumra (SK)
2. Local child’s red sorghum flour, Sorghum bicolor.
1) Red Sorghum
2) Cowpea
3) Peanut butter paste
4) Sugar
5) Potato
6) Carrot
Bongor (SB)
3. Local child’s rice flour, Oryza sativa.
1) Local husked rice
2) Carrot
3) Sugar N’Djaména (RN)
4. Local child’s pearl millet flour, Pennisetum typhoïdes.
1) Pearl millet
2) Beans
3) Peanut butter paste
4) Sugar
5) Potato
6) Carrot
N’Djaména (PN)
5. Local child’s corn flour, Zea mays.
1) Corn
2) Bean
3) Peanut butter paste
4) Sugar
5) Potato
6) Carrot
N’Djaména (MN)
The carrot is treated separately up to the grinding stage,
without cooking, as in the chart above. Finally, the whole
lot is mixed with powdered sugar and conditioned.
Regarding red sorghum-based flours from Koumra, the
red sorghum and the beans are processed, ground separa-
tely, then mixed with powdered sugar and conditioned.
Finally, for corn flour meals, the corn and peanuts are
processed and ground separately, while the beans, pota-
toes and carrots are processed, mixed and ground to-
gether. The whole lot is then mixed and powdered sugar
is added.
Sorting, performed manually, eliminates debris such as
panicles or spikes. De-husking of millet, corn and rice, is
carried out using a husker-sheller.
After washing, the ingredients are dried at room tem-
perature. Drying time depends on the type of grain and
sunshine levels.
The grinding is performed using mills and is followed
by sieving.
The roasting process significantly reduces moisture,
viscosity and anti-nutrients, helps to kill bacteria and in-
sects, but also develops a flavor appreciated those con-
suming it. Roasting involves grilling in a large aluminum
pot [6]. During this operation, the seeds or flour are con-
tinuously stirred with a wooden spatula.
2.3. The Physico Chemical Analyzes
The assays were performed according to standard meth-
ods. The samples were analyzed in triplicate for calcium,
magnesium, iron, zinc, moisture, protein, fat, carbohy-
drates and ash.
2.3.1. Determining Moisture
The sample (5 g) un-dergoes drying in an oven at 105˚C
± 2˚C for three hours. The weight difference shows the
moisture content [14].
2.3.2. Determining the Total Protein Content
It is measured following the Kjeldahl method [14] based
on the total mineralization of the biological material in an
acid environment, followed by distillation of nitrogen in
ammonia form. The total mass of vegetable protein is
calculated using a conversion factor of 6.25.
2.3.3. Determination of Fats
5 g of each sample was weighed and introduced into an
extraction cartridge, covered by cotton. The cartridge
was placed in a 150 ml glass Soxhlet [15]. The solvent
container was weighed and 400 ml of n-hexane was
added. The soxhlet was then introduced into the con-
tainer placed on the heating mantle, which was then
connected to the cryostat cooling thermostat. Four to six
siphoning processes were conducted over 5 hours. The
heating mantle was disconnected. The solvent was then
evaporated in a RE 121 Rotavapor (made in Switzerland).
The container with the fat was placed in an oven for 3

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation 63
hours at 103˚C, and then in a desiccator for 30 min and
then weighed. The weight difference gives the fat content
of the sample.
2.3.4. Determination of Total Sugars
The determination of the total sugar content of the sam-
ples was performed in triplicate by spectrometric assay
samples [16]. The reading of optical densities was made
at 540 nm using a μquant type plate reader (Bio-tek in-
strument Serial No. 157904, USA) coupled with a com-
puter running KC integrated Junior (v1.31.5) software.
2.3.5. Determination of Ash Rate
The sample (5 g) introduced in metal crucibles was min-
eralized in a muffle furnace (type VOLCA V50) at 550˚C
for five (05) hours, removed using thongs and then
cooled in a desiccators for about one (01) hour before
being weighed. The difference in weight gives the ash
content of the sample [14].
2.3.6. Determination of Minerals
Mineralization was achieved through dry ashing. The ash
obtained contains major elements (Na, Ca, Mg, K, etc.)
and trace elements (Fe, Zn, etc.). These minerals were
determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry [17]
(with a PELKIN Elmer model 3110 device (Connecticut,
USA). A hollow Al-Ca-Cu-Fe-Mg-Si-Zn cathode lamp
was used.
2.3.7. Calculation of the Energy Value
The energy value corresponding to the available energy
was calculated using [18] coefficients, coefficients adop-
ted by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation (FAO) in 1970:
449XP GL
Where P = protein percentage, G = carbohydrates per-
centage, L = lipids (fats) percentage and X = energy value
in Kcal/100g.
2.4. Microbiological Analyzes of Locally Made
Infant Flours
2.4.1. Preparation of Samples for Analysis
The stock solution for each parameter was prepared with
10 g of each sample (except for the detection of Salmo-
nella, where 25 g of flour was used), aseptically removed
and diluted in 90 ml of autoclaved Buffered Peptone
Water (Liofilchem, Italy). The mixture is placed in a ster-
ile stomacher bag that ensures the grinding for 2 minutes.
The mix is put back in the flask, with a 10−1 dilution rate.
A cascade dilution in autoclaved test tubes was done by
taking 1 ml (or 1000 µl by the pipette) of the previous
solution and putting it into 9 ml of NaCl. Dilutions of
10−2, 10−3, 10−4, 10−5 and 10−6 are then successfully ob-
tained. Each time, the end of the test tube is subjected to
flaming as soon as it is opened. After having added the
1000 µl, it is again subjected to flaming before being
closed.
There follows a process of autoclaving the test tubes (2
per sample) containing the Rappaport, to search for Sal-
monella. Seeding was done by plating 200 µl of each
aliquot taken. Each dilution was inoculated into two Petri
dishes and incubated.
2.4.2. Numeration of the Total Aerobic Mesophilic
Flora
The total aerobic mesophilic flora (FAMT) was counted
in PCA (Plate Count Agar Liofilchem, Italy) conditions,
after 24 hours of incubation at 30˚C under aerobic condi-
tions [19].
2.4.3. Searching for Total and Thermotolerant
Coliforms
Detection for indicators of fecal contamination in a Eosin
Methylen Blue (EMB) medium was carried out, to enu-
merate total coliforms and thermotolerant, after 48 hours
of incubation, at 37˚C and 44˚C (±0.5) respectively, un-
der aerobic conditions [19].
2.4.4. Sear ching fo r Escherichia coli
E. coli was looked for in eosin methylen blue (EMB)
after 24 hours of incubation at 44˚C under aerobic condi-
tions [20].
2.4.5. Sea rching for Moulds and Yeasts
Yeasts and moulds were counted in a Sabouraud setting,
after 3 - 5 days of incubation at 30˚C, under aerobic con-
ditions [19].
2.4.6. Sear ching fo r Salmonella and Shigella
Testing for the presence or absence (PA) of Salmonella
and Shigella was conducted in a SS setting after 3 - 5
days of incubation at 37˚C, under aerobic conditions.
2.4.7. Searchi ng fo r Suspect ed Path o geni c
Staphylococci
Suspected pathogenic Staphylococci, especially Staphy-
lococcus aureus, were counted in the Chapman, or Man-
nitol Salt Agar (MSA, Liofilchem, Italy), setting, after 24
hours of incubation at 37˚C, under aerobic conditions
[19].
2.4.8. St at i stical An alysis
All assays were carried out in triplicate, and the averages
and Standards Deviations (SD) calculation have been
done with the software EXCEL 2007.

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
64
3. Results
Knowledge of the physico-chemical composition and of
the microbiological quality of infant flours is an impor-
tant aspect when evaluating foodstuffs.
3.1. Physico-Chemical Parameters of Local
Infant Flours
The macronutrient, mineral and vitamin contents of the
local infant flours are presented in Tables 2-6. Tables 7
and 8 give the same information about the powder from
dried Moringa oleifera leaves and from pulps of Parkia
biglobosa.
3.2. Hygienic Quality of Infant Flours Cell
Enumeration in Flours Samples
The counting of the different flora in the samples allowed
us to achieve results expressed in Colony Format Units
(CFU) per gram of flours. These are shown in Table 9.
The Petri dishes with 30 to 300 CFU/g were considered.
These values represent averages from two analyzes.
The sanitary quality of flours must be consistent with
Table 2. The nutritional value of 100 g of a red sorghum-
based local infant flours, from Koumra (average ± standard
deviation).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 325.32 682b
Moisture (%) 6.67 ± 0.58
Ash (g) 1.87 ± 0.00
Proteins (g) 8.31 ± 0.88 10.28c
Fats (g) 7.52 ± 0.35
Total sugars(g) 56.1 ± 0.55
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 2.11 ± 0.04 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 18.82 ± 0.00 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 7.11 ± 0.90 11.6
Zinc (mg) 2.17 ± 0.16 8.4
Calcium (mg) 5.65 ± 0.98 400
Magnesium (mg) 24.56 ± 1.02 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consulta-
tion, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding of
young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific knowl-
edge. UNICEF/University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Geneva:
WHO/NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et besoins
en protéines. Série Rapports.
Table 3. Nutritional value for 100 g of local red sorghum
infant flours, from Bongor (average ± standard deviation).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 299.80 682b
Moisture (%) 7.66 ± 0.57
Ash (g) 2.16 ± 0.01
Proteins (g) 11.81 ± 4.81 10.28c
Fats (g) 10.34 ± 1.91
Total sugars (g) 39.88 ± 6.42
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 30.47 ± 0.15 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 28.24 ± 0.00 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 8.23 ± 1.00 11.6
Zinc (mg) 2.51 ± 0.19 8.4
Calcium (mg) 10.49 ± 1.64 400
Magnesium (mg) 23.30 ± 0.62 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consulta-
tion, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding of
young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific knowl-
edge. UNICEF/University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Geneva: WHO/
NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et besoins en
protéines. Série Rapports.
Table 4. Nutritional value for 100 g of local infant millet-
based flours, from N’Djamena (average ± standard devia-
tion).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 385.84 682b
Humidiy (%) 6.54 ± 0.30
Ash (g) 1.84 ± 0.00
Proteins (g) 10.06 ± 0.88 10.28c
Fats (g) 10.33 ± 0.57
Total sugars (g) 63.16 ± 0.49
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 3.80 ± 0.04 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 23.53 ± 4.71 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 12.70 ± 0.56 11.6
Zinc (mg) 1.53 ± 0.16 8.4
Calcium (mg) 22.08 ± 2.96 400
Magnesium (mg) 24.99 ± 1.75 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consulta-
tion, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding
of young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific
knowledge. UNICEF/University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Ge-
neva: WHO/NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et
besoins en protéines. Série Rapports.

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation 65
Table 5. Nutritional value for 100 g of local rice-based in-
fant flours, from N’Djamena (average ± standard devia-
tion).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 302.24 682b
Humidy (%) 8.95 ± 0.11
Ash(g) 0.73 ± 0.01
Proteins (g) 7.00 ± 0.44 10.28c
Fats (g) 1.83 ± 0.13
Total sugars (g) 64.44 ± 4.52
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 4.33 ± 0.11 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 09.41 ± 0.00 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 8.94 ± 0.75 11.6
Zinc (mg) 0.67 ± 0.01 8.4
Calcium (mg) 8.40 ± 0.92 400
Magnesium (mg) 6.74 ± 0.19 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consulta-
tion, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding
of young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific
knowledge. UNICEF/University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Ge-
neva: WHO/NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et
besoins en protéines. Série Rapports.
Table 6. Nutritional value for 100 g of local corn-based in-
fant flours, from N’Djamena (average ± standard devia-
tion).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 314.07 682b
Moisture (%) 7.95 ± 0.35
Ash (g) 1.75 ± 0.01
Proteins (g) 12.69 ± 0.44 10.28c
Fats (g) 16.26 ± 0.84
Total sugars (g) 29.24 ± 4.34
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 13.79 ± 0.12 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 14.12 ± 4.71 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 8.05 ± 0.61 11.6
Zinc (mg) 1.73 ± 0.14 8.4
Calcium (mg) 09.37 ± 2.22 400
Magnesium (mg) 17.20 ± 0.29 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consulta-
tion, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding
of young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific
knowledge. UNICEF/University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Ge-
neva: WHO/NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et
besoins en protéines. Série Rapports.
Table 7. Nutritional value for 100 g of powdered Moringa
oleifera leaves, from Gounou Gaya (average ± standard de-
viation).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 253.73 682b
Moisture (%) 9.31 ± 0.18
Ash (g) 10.50 ± 0.07
Proteins (g) 24.28 ± 0.22 10.28c
Fats (g) 7.42 ± 1.56
Total sugars (g) 22.46 ± 2.02
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 624.40 ± 0.41 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 65.88 ± 0.00 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 53.75 ± 5.07 11.6
Zinc (mg) 17.58 ± 0.89 8.4
Calcium (mg) 1443.90 ± 11.03 400
Magnesium (mg) 176.72 ± 0.73 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consul-
tation, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding
of young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific
knowledge. UNICEF /University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Ge-
neva: WHO/NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et
besoins en protéines. Série Rapports.
Table 8. Nutritional value for 100 g of Parkia biglobosa’s
pulps powder, from Kélo (average ± standard deviation).
Nutrients Value
RDAa
Energy (Kcal) 304.04 682b
Moisture (%) 13.20 ± 0.22
Ash (g) 5.17 ± 0.29
Proteins (g) 4.59 ± 0.22 10.28c
Fats (g) 2.49 ± 0.65
Total sugars (g) 65.82 ± 2.51
Vitamins
Vitamin A (  -carotène) 33.85 ± 0.25 µg ER 400
Vitamin C (mg) 75.29 ± 0.00 30
Minerals
Iron (mg) 14.82 ± 2.49 11.6
Zinc (mg) 7.79 ± 0.44 8.4
Calcium (mg) 142.06 ± 4.11 400
Magnesium (mg) 73.00 ± 1.14 54
RDA: Recommended Daily Allowance. aJoint FAO/WHO Expert Consul-
tation, 2002. Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition. Geneva:
World Health Organization, 2002; bWHO (1998). Complementary feeding
of young children in developing countries: a review of current scientific
knowledge. UNICEF/University of California-Davis/WHO/ORSTOM. Ge-
neva: WHO/NUT/98.1; cFAO/OMS/UNU, 1986. Besoins énergétiques et
esoins en protéines. Série Rapports. b

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
66
Table 9. CFU/g of different flora in the samples.
FAMT Total Coliforms Therm. Colif E. coli Moulds Yeast Staph. Salm
SK 5.8 × 104 0 0 0 250 0 0 -
SB 3.4 × 104 250 0 0 375 750 0 -
MN 4.6 × 104 750 0 0 0 750 0 -
RN 1.3 × 104 3.7 × 103 0 0 250 0 0 -
PN 2.3 × 104 104 0 0 750 750 0 -
NK 5.2 × 104 250 0 0 0 500 0 -
MG 9.5 × 103 0 0 0 125 250 0 -
-: signifies an absence of salmonella; Therm. Colif = Themotolerant coliforms; Staph. = Staphylococcus aureus; Salm = Salmonella.
Table 10. Microbiological standards for infant flours.
Microorganisms/g of food Flours requiring cooking Instantaneous flours
Aerobic mesophilic bacteria <105 <104
Fecal coliforms <100 <20
Escherichia coli <10 <2
Salmonella 0 0
Aflatoxins 0 0
Yeasts and moulds <103 Unspecified
international recommendations, and with local legisla-
tions in the countries where the flours is manufactured or
sold. Table 10 presents the GRET and ORSTOM micro-
biological specifications presented by [21].
Considering the microbiological standards above, the
analyzed local flours show acceptable hygiene levels.
However, work needs to be continued to raise awareness,
amongst women producers, of particular issues such as
drying conditions (protection against flies) and taking
care of their hands when handling the flours.
When searching for suspected pathogenic Staphylo-
cocci, especially Staphylococcus aureus, some suspicious
colonies were seen, but the coagulase was negative.
4. Discussion
Analysis of the chemical composition, especially of ma-
cronutrients, of local flours produced the results shown in
the tables above.
The moisture levels (%) in the flours vary from 6.54 ±
0.30 for PN to 8.95 ± 0.11 for RN, nearly all of which are
one unit superior to those obtained by [6] in five infant
flours called Vitafort, which were based on the same
grains from Chad. The Vitafort meals had three ingredi-
ents: cereals, cowpeas and peanut paste. Most homemade
flours now also contain potato and carrot.
The standards adopted on complementary feeding of
young children [22] say that the water content should be
less than 8 g per 100 g of flours. Only the rice-based
flours (8.95 ± 0.11) seem to deviate from this. Its process
should be reviewed to find the cause of this problem and
to solve it.
The study of the chemical composition shown in Ta-
bles 2-6 sets out certain findings. Protein levels (7.00 ±
0.44 for RN to 12.69 ± 0.44 g per 100 g for MN) are
lower than the values obtained by [6] (11.5 to 13.7 g per
100 g). However, for fats, with the exception of rice-
based flours (1.83 ± 0.13 g per 100 g), our results (7.52 ±
0.35 for SK to 16, 26 ± 0.84 for MN) were superior to
their own (5.5 to 8.5). Our results for total sugars ranged
from 29.24 ± 4.34 for MN to 64.44 ± 4.52 for RN and
energy levels (299.80 Kcal for SB to 385.84 Kcal for
PN). The results recorded by [23], who worked on ten
cereal-based complementary foods using extruded cere-
als, roasted cereals and uncooked cereals, are higher than
our results for these last two parameters. These were,
respectively, sugars (66.2 to 80.17) and energy values
(432 to 484 Kcal). The same is true for protein (10.32 to
14.6) and zinc (0.82 to 5.0).
The analysis of micronutrients shows the richness of
our flours in iron (7.11 ± 0.90 mg/100g for SK to 12.70 ±

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation 67
0.56 for PN) and in zinc (0.67 ± 0.01 mg/100g for RN to
2.51 ± 0.19 for SB), compared to Vitafort where the val-
ues found were very low, respectively, from 1.94 to 4.77
µg/100g, and 1.98 to 3.23 µg/100g). Given the richness
in minerals of the powder from dried Moringa oleifera
leaves and from pulps of Parkia biglobosa, we are opti-
mistic that the enrichment of local flours by these two
ingredients will increase their iron and zinc content.
However, our flours have very low levels of calcium
(5.65 ± 0.98 mg per 100 g for SK to 22.08 ± 2.96 for PN)
and of magnesium (6.74 ± 0.19 for RN to 24.99 ± 1.75
for PN, mg per 100 g) compared to the flours used by [6],
which respectively recorded (32 - 60) and (59 - 138) the
differences between the results may be explained by the
transformation process (drying and roasting), by the soil
type and also by possible interactions between nutrients.
We hypothesize that these low levels of Ca and Mg in
our flours will be improved by the addition of Mo ringa
and pulps of Parkia biglobosa; both of which were found
to be rich in these minerals.
The protein, fat, iron, zinc and vitamin A levels were
found to be higher than those of [13] in seven types of
traditional porridge, which were respectively 6.6 ± 2.1 g;
3.0 ± 0.8 g; 7.2 ± 2.1 mg; 1.8 ± 1.1 mg and 1.4 ± 0.9 µg
ER. Regarding the fats, our results are similar to those of
[23], but concerning calcium and iron levels, we obtained
figures higher than [23]’s, which were respectively 2.73
to 10.7 mg and 2.64 to 9.0 mg.
The powder of the dried Moringa oleifera leaves was
alone more concentrated for the majority of the nutrients
in our study, except for fats (7.42 ± 1.56 g) and total
sugars (22.46 ± 2.02 g), than the local infant flours: pro-
teins (24.28 ± 0.22 g), minerals (Ca 1443.90 ± 11.03 mg;
Mg 176.72 ± 0.73 mg; Fe 53.75 ± 5.07 mg; Zn 17.58 ±
0.89 mg) and vitamins (
 -carotene 624.40 ± 0.41 µg ER,
vitamin C 65.88 ± 0.00 mg). The high mineral content of
the Moringa oleifera powder is easily explained by its
high ash content (10.50 g per 100 g).
In their study [24] of the powder from dried Moringa
oleifera leaves, obtained results superior to our own, re-
garding the protein, carbohydrate, calcium, magnesium,
ash and energy values. These values were respectively:
39.69 ± 0.01g; 35.33 g; 1526.74 ± 50.03 mg; 428.87 ±
85.96 mg; 11.39 ± 0.66 g and 358.73 Kcal. In terms of
iron and zinc levels, we obtained results superior to those
of their study, which were respectively 18.86 ± 1.20 mg
and 2.13 ± 0.07 mg per 100 g. Our results are similar
with regard to fats. They found 7.85 ± 0.28 g per 100 g.
Analysis of pulps of Parkia biglobosa showed higher
levels in our study, total sugars being 65.82 ± 2.51 g and
vitamin C levels at 75.29 ± 0.00 mg.
This pulp is richer in iron (14.82 ± 2.49 mg), zinc
(7.79 ± 0.44 mg), calcium (142.06 ± 4.11 mg), magne-
sium (73.00 ± 1.14 mg), and  -carotene (33.85 ± 0.25 µg
ER) than our local infant flours, and so is similar to
Moringa in terms of richness, in our study. It also has the
highest water content (13.20 ± 0.22%) but remains low in
protein (4.59 ± 0.22 g).
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, this study identified the physico-chemical
parameters (moisture, ash, protein, fat, carbohydrates,
minerals, vitamins A and C), and the microbiological
quality of five local infant flours, of the powder of dried
Moringa oleifera leaves and of Parkia biglobosa’s pulps,
all of which came from Chad.
This study shows that local infant flours have adequate
protein and fat levels, but the levels of certain micronu-
trients (Zn, Ca, Mg) are below recommended levels for
this type of flours. Their  -carotene content is very low.
Moringa oleifera powder is rich in protein, while pulps
of Parkia biglobosa are richer in total sugars.
Mineral analyses showed that Moringa oleifera pow-
der is very rich in calcium and magnesium for macronu-
trients, rich in iron and zinc for trace elements, and rich
in  -carotene. Pulps of Parkia biglobosa are rich in mag-
nesium for macronutrients, rich in iron, zinc for trace
elements, and rich in vitamin C.
The transformation of Moringa leaf into powder re-
mains good practice, for better preservation of the prod-
uct but also for a high concentration of nutrients.
Analysis of the chemical composition of dried Mor-
inga oleifera leaves and of Parkia biglobosa’s pulps re-
veals qualities of nutritional great interest.
We hypothesize that the addition of Moringa oleifera
and pulps of Parkia biglobosa into local meals will lead
to an increase in levels of protein, iron, zinc, and vita-
mins A and C.
6. Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully thank the French embassy in Chad,
through the Cooperation and Cultural Action Service
(SCAC) at N’Djaména and Ouagadougou and the Eco-
nomic and Monetary Union of West Africa (UEMOA),
for their financial support. Our thanks also go to Mr.
Bénoît Sa TRAORE, laboratory technician at CRSBAN,
for his cooperation and availability on his days-off.
REFERENCES
[1] UNICEF, “Sommet Mondial pour les Enfants,” Nations
Unies, New York, 29-30 September 1990.
[2] SCN, “(United Nations Standing Committee on Nutrition).
Fifth Report on the World Nutrition Situation: Nutrition
for Improved Development Outcomes,” SCN, Geneva,
2004.

Study of the Nutritional Value and Hygienic Quality of Local Infant Flours from Chad,
with the Aim of Their Use for Improved Infant Flours Preparation
68
[3] FAO, “L’état de l’Insécurité Alimentaire dans le Monde
2010. Combattre l’Insécurité Alimentaire lors des Crises
prolongées,” 2010.
[4] INSEED, “Institut National des Statistiques, des Etudes
Economiques et de la Démographie. Recensement Général
de la Population et de l’Habitat du Tchad, RGPHT2,”
N’Djaména, République du Tchad, 2009.
[5] SNRP II, République du Tchad, “Document de Stratégie
de Croissance et de Réduction de la Pauvreté: SNRP2
2008-2011,” N’Djaména, Avril 2008.
[6] O. Yomadji-Outengar, “Fabrication de Farines Enrichies
à Partir de Produits Locaux au Tchad,” Centre National
de Nutrition et de Technologie Alimentaire (CNNTA),
N’djamena, Tchad, 1994.
[7] O. B. Hamza, C. Guiral, D. D. Esaie, K. Ndingambaye, P.
Diallo, G. Batakao, N. Naibé, N. D. Syntiche and H.
Noumassei, “Rapport Descriptif de l’Enquête Nationale
sur l’Etat Nutritionnel et l’Alimentation au Tchad,” Min-
istère de la Santé Publique, République du Tchad, 2002.
[8] WHO, “Iron Deficiency Anemia, Assessment, Prevention,
and Control, a Guide for Program Managers,” World
Health Organization, Geneva, 2001.
[9] FAO, “Profil Nutritionnel du Tchad—Division de la Nu-
trition et de la Protection des Consommateurs,” FAO,
2009.
[10] S. Grantham-McGregor, L. Fernald and K. Sethuraman,
“Effects of Health and Nutrition on Cognitive and Be-
havioral Development of Children in the First Three
Years of Life. Part 2: Infections and Micronutrient Defi-
ciencies: Iodine, Iron and Zinc,” Food and Nutrition Bul-
letin, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1999, pp. 76-99.
[11] World Health Organization, “The WHO/UNICEF Joint
Meeting on Infant and Young Child Feeding,” WHO,
Geneva, 1979.
[12] S. de Pee and M. W. Bloem, “Current and Potential Role
of Specially Formulated Foods and Food Supplements for
Preventing Malnutrition among 6- to 23-Month-Old
Children and for Treating Moderate Malnutrition among
6- to 59-Month-Old Children,” Food and Nutrition Bulle-
tin, Vol. 30, Suppl. 3, 2009, pp. 434-463.
[13] T. Traore, “Elaboration et Évaluation d’une Stratégie
d’Amélioration de l’Alimentation de Complément des
Jeunes Enfants au Burkina Faso,” Thèse de Doctorat
Unique en Nutrition et Sciences des Aliments, Université
de Ouagadougou, UFR-SVT, CRSBAN, 2005.
[14] AOAC, “Official Methods of Analysis,” 15th Edition,
Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington
DC, 1990, pp. 808,831-835,1113.
[15] American Oil Chemists’ Society (AOCS), “Official Me-
thods and Recommended Practices,” 4th Edition, 1990.
[16] J. D. Fox and J. F. Robyt, “Miniaturization of Three Car-
bohydrates Analyzes Using a Microplate Reader,” Ana-
lytical Biochemistry, Vol. 195, No. 1, 1991, pp. 93-96.
doi:10.1016/0003-2697(91)90300-I
[17] M. Pinta, “Méthodes de Référence pour la Détermination
des Éléments Minéraux dans les Végétaux. Détermination
des Éléments Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn et Cu par Absorption
Atomique,” Oléagineux, Vol. 28, No. 2, 1973, pp. 87-92.
[18] A. L. Merrill and B. K. Watt, “Energy Value of Foods:
Basis and Derivation,” Agriculture Handbook, Washing-
ton DC, ARS United States Department of Agriculture,
No. 74, 1973.
[19] C. de Souza, Y. Ameyapoh, S. D. Karou, K. T. Anani, M.
L. Kpodar and M. Gbeassor, “Assessing Market-Sold
Remedies in Lomé (Togo) for Hygienic Quality,” Bio-
technology Research International, Vol. 2011, 2010, Ar-
ticle ID: 572521.
[20] M. A. Zinnah, M. R. Bari, M. T. Islam, M. T. Hossain, M.
T. Rahman, M. H. Haque, S. A. M. Babu, R. P. Ruma and
M. A. Islam, “Characterization of Escherichia coli Iso-
lated from Samples of Different Biological and Environ-
mental Sources,” Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Me-
dicine, Vol. 5, No. 1-2, 2007, pp. 25-32.
[21] C. Mouquet, O. Bruyeron and S. Trèche, “Caractéris-
tiques d’une Bonne Farine Infantile,” Bulletin du Réseau,
Technologie et partenariat en Agroalimentaire (TPA), No.
15, 1998, pp. 8-11.
[22] F. Tchibindat and S. Treche, “Vitafort : Une Farine Infan-
tile de Haute Densité Énergétique au Congo,” Techniques
724, OMS, Genève, 1995.
[23] D. Cissé, “Utilisation des Aliments de Complément dans
la Lutte Contre l’Anémie par Carence en fer chez les En-
fants au Sénégal. Etude de la Biodisponibilité du fer, es-
sais d’Enrichissement et de Supplémentation Alimen-
taires,” Thèse de Doctorat de 3ème Cycle de Biologie
Animale, Spécialité: Nutrition et Alimentation, Faculté
des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop
de Dakar, 1997.
[24] M. Ndong, S. Wade, N. Dossou, A. T. Guiro and R. Di-
agne Gning, “Valeur Nutritionnelle du Moringa Oleifera,
étude de la Biodisponibilité du fer, effet de l’Enrichis-
sement de Divers Plats Traditionnels Sénégalais avec la
poudre des Feuilles,” African Journal of Food, Agricul-
ture, Nutrition and Development, Vol. 7, No. 3, 2007, pp.
1-17.