Journal of Environmental Protection, 2013, 4, 142-153
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.48A1016 Published Online August 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jep)
Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and
Air Pollutants and Their Influence on Acute Respiratory
Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco,
Mexico
Hermes U. Ramírez-Sánchez, Mario E. García-Guadalupe, Héctor H. Ulloa-Gódinez,
Ángel R. Meulenert-Peña, Omar García-Concepción, Jaime Alcalá Gutierrez,
Sarahi J. Lizarraga Brito
Department of Physics, Institute of Astronomy and Meteorology, University Center of Exact Sciences and Engineering (CUCEI),
University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico.
Received June 4th, 2013; revised July 9th, 2013; accepted August 2nd, 2013
Copyright © 2013 Hermes U. Ramírez-Sánchez et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
ABSTRACT
The presence of temperature inversions (TI), concentration of air pollutants (AP) and meteorological variables (MV)
affect the welfare of the population, creating public health problems (acute respiratory diseases ARDs, among others).
The Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone (GMZ) experiences high levels of air pollution, which associated with the presence
of temperature inversions and meteorological variations is conducive to the incidence of ARDs in children. The aim of
this work is to evaluate the TI, MV, AP and their influence on the ARDs in children under five years in the GMZ from
2003 to 2007. In this period, the moderate and strong TI are the most frequent presenting from November to May. The
AP shows a variable behavior during the year and between years, with the highest concentration of particles less than 10
microns (PM10), followed by ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO) and
sulfur dioxide (SO2), the most affected areas are the southeast of the GMZ. Annual arithmetic mean is 213,510 ± 41,209
ARDs consultations. The most important diseases are acute respiratory infections (98.0%), followed by pneumonia and
bronchopneumonia (1.1%), asthma and status asthmaticus (0.5%) and streptococcal pharyngitis and tonsillitis (0.4%).
Months with most inquiries were from October to March, mainly in the southeast, south and center of the city, coincid-
ing with high levels of AP. Statistical analysis shows that the TI have significant correlation with ARDs in three years,
temperature (Temp) in two, relative humidity (RH) in two, wind speed (WS) in three, wind direction (WD) in two,
while that air pollutants NOX and NO2 showed significant correlation with ARDs throughout the period. CO and SO2
showed significance in two years, while the PM10 and O3 in one.
Keywords: Temperature Inversions; Meteorological Variables; Air Pollutants; Acute Respiratory Diseases
1. Introduction
A major problem in large cities around the world is the
environmental degradation, where air pollution generates
significant risks and impacts on the welfare of the popu-
lation. Elevated indices of air pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere cause problems in the long and medium term
(global warming, climate change, etc.), in local and re-
gional zones, causing public health problems, particu-
larly respiratory and cardiovascular diseases [1].
Air pollution is of great importance from events such
as Meuse Valley (Belgium) in 1930, Donora (Pennsyl-
vania, USA) in 1948 and London in December 1952 [2,
3]. These events led to an increase in morbidity and
mortality, showing that levels of air pollution are caus-
ally associated with an increase in premature deaths. This
evidence led to the adoption of policies for air pollution
control in Western Europe and the United States that have
managed to reduce it. Also, several studies have reported
that the most vulnerable groups are children and seniors,
with a high incidence of morbidity and mortality [1,4,5].
However, some of the effects observed for some pol-

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
143
lutants and specific mechanisms are not sufficiently
studied in relation to the influence of temperature inver-
sions and meteorological variables.
Temperature Inversions (TI) are changes in the normal
tendency of air to cool with altitude; when there is a TI,
the temperature increases with altitude in the troposphere.
This temperature increase may occur from the surface to
a certain height [3,6,7]. TI are natural phenomena that
may occur at any time and day of the year, ending when
the sun’s rays reach maximum or when wind speed ex-
ceeds 20 km/h. Natural phenomena not presenting a risk
to human health, however, can become dangerous in an
urban area where the warm air layer prevents the devel-
opment of disperse contaminants. This situation is exac-
erbated in the presence of air masses of high pressure
that promote a temperature inversion for several days.
Under these conditions, air pollutants are concentrated
near the surface, reaching values harmful to human
health [8,9]. It is therefore possible that under certain
meteorological conditions IT intensify the accumulation
of pollutants in the air.
Health biodiversity are influenced by environmental
conditions, atmospheric pollution and biological envi-
ronment they occupy. Meteorological variables directly
affect the behavior of pollutants in the atmosphere, in
particular wind speed, atmospheric stability and varia-
tions in humidity and temperature. High temperature may
decrease the metabolism and allow the emergence of
digestive disorders, low temperature activates the me-
tabolism but bring respiratory problems. Meanwhile, it is
known that the rain worsens rheumatic problems and
environmental dryness leads to increased infections. At-
mospheric pressure is related to the geographical location
of the area (higher in coastal regions), which can affect
blood pressure. Sunlight combats depression, osteoporo-
sis and rickets, cold days, wet or cloudy favor the ap-
pearance of nervous disorders, suicide, epileptic seizures,
insomnia and embolism. Also, fog worsens bronchitis
while improving asthma. Heat waves are associated with
cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, among others.
Moreover, the frequency of warm meteorology, tem-
perature inversions and natural fire, may reduce air qual-
ity in urban areas [10].
Meanwhile, the atmospheric stability of the boundary
layer is very important because it determines the inten-
sity of the turbulence of the wind that may influence the
transport of water vapor, carbon dioxide, heat and pol-
lutants. Therefore, surface pollutants may be dispersed to
upper layers of the atmosphere or get caught in urban
areas just above the surface. The atmosphere is stable
when an air parcel is vertically moved back to its original
position, that is, opposed to the original vertical move-
ment. When the atmosphere is stable near the surface,
pollution emissions accumulate to remain trapped and
unable to disperse vertically [2,6,7].
The aim of this work was to evaluate the presence of
temperature inversions, meteorological variables, con-
centration of air pollutants and their influence on acute
respiratory diseases in children in the Guadalajara Met-
ropolitan Zone (GMZ).
2. Materials and Methods
The methodology consisted primarily in gathering in-
formation from the temperature inversions (TI), mete-
orological variables (MV) (temperature, humidity, pres-
sure, wind direction and speed, etc.) and the concentra-
tions of major air pollutants (AP): carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX),
ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter
less than 10 microns (PM10) in the Guadalajara Metro-
politan Zone from 2003 to 2007. Later databases were
constructed for each of these variables. With the Geo-
graphic Information Systems (GIS) we analyzed the spa-
tiotemporal behavior of each one of them to describe
their variations. At same time information was accessed
from the medical services of the Jalisco Health Secre-
tariat (JHS) to identify and quantify acute respiratory
diseases (ARDs) that had a higher incidence in the GMZ
from 2003 to 2007. Also, there was a database of the
spatiotemporal distribution of the same in the GMZ in
the period analyzed by GIS.
Later correlations were established between TI vs AP,
TI vs ARDs, MV and ARDs, AP vs ARDs and a multi-
variate analysis of TI, MV and AP vs ARDs from 2003
to 2007 in the GMZ. With the results of the correlations
between variables we proposed the most affected areas,
the most vulnerable populations and suggested preven-
tive measures for optimal response in the presence of
temperature inversion events, extreme values of mete-
orological variables, high concentrations of air pollutants
and increasing the number of ARDs as a result of TI
events, MV and AP.
3. Results
3.1. Behavior of Temperature Inversions (TI) in
the GMZ from 2003 to 2007
Figure 1 shows the percentages of thermal inversions per
year, 2005 showed the maximum value of 82.82% of
days with TI, and 2007 the minimum with 67.97%. Re-
garding the annual average intensity, 2005 showed the
maximum gradient 3.79˚C, and 2004 the minimum with
2.85˚C (Figure 2). The maximum annual average thick-
ness was for 2005 with 201.05 m, and the minimum 2007
with 141.7 m (Figure 3). The time break of maximum
annual average was 10:36 h in 2005 and the minimum at
9:26 h in 2004 (Figure 4).

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
144
73.66 75.09 82.82
68.02 67.93
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
1
%o
f

d
y
a
sw
i
t
h
T
I

Y
e
a
r

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Figure 1. Annual percentage of days with TI in the GMZ.
3.35
2.85
3.79 3.28 3.22
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
1
Y
e
a
r

20032004 20052006 2007
Ave
r
a
ge
i
n
t
en
s
i
t
yof
T
I
(
ºC)
˚
Figure 2. Annual average of TI intensity in the GMZ.
185.83
148.87
201.05
177.76
141.64
0.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
1
A
v
er
a
g
e
T
h
i
c
k
n
esso
f

T
I
(
m
)

Y
ea
r

20032004 2005 2006 2007
Figure 3. Annual average thickness of TI in the GMZ.
10:14
09:26
10:36
10:20
09:39
08:38
09:07
09:36
10:04
10:33
11
:
02
1
A
ver
a
ge
b
re
a
kuptimeofT
I

Year
2003 200420052006 2007
Figure 4. Annual average time rupture of TI in the GMZ.
Monthly analysis shows that the number of TI is larger
during the winter and spring months (November to May)
until rainstorms start (Figure 5). Meanwhile monthly
average intensities show the same behavior as the fre-
quency and the months of November to May had the
highest intensities in the temperature gradient of thermal
inversions (Figure 6). The thickness of the TI presents
very heterogeneous values, although there was a trend of
increase from 2003 to 2005 and decline from 2005 to
2007, in monthly terms there seems to be not well-de-
fined pattern and values are very homogeneous in all
months (Figure 7). Meanwhile the monthly breaking
times show that the months of November to May showed
longer rupture times (Figure 8).
During the period 2003-2007 the maximum variation
range of TI intensity occurs in the months of November
to May, while in rainy months the range is reduced. The
maximum thicknesses are between 100 and 1000 m,
while the minimum range between 30 and 100 m.
To classify TI intensities the following scale was used:
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
Enero
Febre ro
Marzo
Abril
Mayo
Junio
Juli o
Agosto
Septi emb r
Octubre
Noviembre
Diciembre
%MonthlydayswithTI 
2003 200420052006 2007
Figure 5. Monthly percentage of days with TI in the GMZ.
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
Enero
Febrero
Marzo
Abril
Mayo
Junio
Julio
Agosto
Septiembre
Octubre
Noviembre
Diciembre
AvergageIntensityofTI(°C)
2003200420052006 2007
Figure 6. Monthly average of TI intensity in the GMZ.
0.00
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
Enero
Febrero
Marzo
Abril
Mayo
Junio
Julio
Agosto
Septi emb re
Octubre
Noviembre
Diciembre
Avera
g
eThicknessofTI
(
m
)
2003200420052006 2007
Figure 7. Monthly average thickness of IT in the GMZ.
02:24
07:12
12:00
16:48
Enero
Febrero
Marzo
Abril
Mayo
Junio 
Julio
Agosto
Septiembre
Octubre
Noviem br e
Diciembre
Average breakuptimeofTI(m)
2003 2004 2005 20062007
Figure 8. Monthly average time rupture of IT in the GMZ.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
145
from 0.1˚C to 1.0˚C (very low intensity) of 1.1˚C to
2.0˚C (low intensity), in the range of 2.1˚C to 3.0˚C (low
moderate intensity), between 3.1˚C and 4˚C (high mod-
erate intensity) and >4.0˚C (strong intensity). The results
show the percentages of TI intensities that were pre-
sented in the GMZ from 2003 to 2007 have a similar
behavior in the five years. Prevailing temperature inver-
sions are moderate to strong (>4˚C) (Figure 9). Analyz-
ing monthly like other TI parameters the most important
values are between November and May and descend in
the rainy months.
humidity of the environment not allowing dispersal.
3.3. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide presents monthly mean concentrations
below EPA standards and NOM. The average monthly
mean was 1.858 ± 0.634 ppm and the range of values is
between 0.316 - 4.883 ppm (Table 2 and Figure 10).
Meanwhile, monthly maximum concentrations have val-
ues above norm in most of the analyzed period, present-
ing peaks with values of 53.600 ppm, representing five
times the norm NOM and six times the EPA, which
represents population risk factors. These events are re-
corded in the driest period of the year (March-June) just
before precipitation. The average value of the monthly
maximum was 8.844 ± 5.310 ppm and monthly highs
range between 0.200 - 53.600 ppm (Table 2 and Figure
11). Most affected areas are the central and southeastern
of GMZ, however, the pollution generated by the CO in
the GMZ is considered significant only at times of peak
levels.
3.2. Behavior Air Pollutants (AP) (CO, NO2,
NOX, O3, SO2, PM10) in the GMZ from
2003 to 2007
Results show highly variable behavior during the year
and between the years analyzed. However, it was evident
that the pollutant with the highest concentration is PM10,
followed by O3, NO2, NOX, CO and SO2. The most af-
fected areas are the southeast of the GMZ, which has the
highest records in both its maximum, averages and
modes. The annual results showed that a significant per-
centage of days exceeded Mexican standards (Table 1). 3.4. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
Monthly average concentrations show values below the
norm NOM, but sometimes they are near or above the
EPA standard (0.05 and 0.10 ppm). The mean monthly
average was 0.034 ± 0.010 ppm and the range of values
is between 0.006 - 0.089 ppm (Table 2 and Figure 12).
From April to June there were high concentrations of
O3, PM10 and CO while December to March showed high
concentrations of PM10, NO2, NOX, CO and SO2, result-
ing from the presence of low temperatures which prolong
the duration times of temperature inversions and low
0.00
20.00
40.00
60
.
00
200320042005 20062007
%o
f
d
a
y
s
w
i
t
h
t
y
p
eo
f
T
I

Y
e
a
r
0-1.0°C 1.1-2.0°C 2.1-3.0°C 3.1-4.0°C >4.0°C
Figure 9. Percentages of TI intensities in the GMZ.
Table 1. Number of days out of standard for each pollutant in Guadalajara metropolitan zone.
Parameter Limits values Acute Exposure 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Ozone (O3) 0.11 ppm (1 Hour)1 once a year 71 49 66 89 87
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 0.21 ppm (1 Hour)2 once a year 5 6 13 14 24
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 11 ppm (8 Hours)3 once every 3 years11 8 3 3 0
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 0.13 ppm (24 Hours)4 once a year 0 0 0 0 0
Particulate matter less than
10 microns (PM10) 120 mg/m3 (24 Hours)5 once a year 115 94 93 101 47
*CO values but not in all cases occurred in 8 hours continue if exceeded at certain times of the day recorded the regulations. **The values of PM10 and SO2 but
not all were presented in 24 continuous hours, if exceeded at certain times of the day recorded the regulations. 1NOM-020-SSAI-1993, 2NOM-023-SSAI-1993,
3NOM-021-SSAI-1993, 4NOM-022-SSAI-1993, 5NOM-025-SSAI-1993.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
146
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
ene-03 mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04 mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05 mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05 ene-06 mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07 mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of CO (ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVA LLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (11 ppm) USEPA (9 ppm)
Figure 10. Time series of monthly averages of CO in the GMZ.
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
ene-03 mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04 mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05
mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06 mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07 mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of CO (ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEP AQUE VALLARTA NOM (11 ppm) USEPA (9 ppm)
Figure 11. Time series of monthly maximum CO in the GMZ.
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05 mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of NO
2
(ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.21 ppm) USEPA (0.05 ppm)
Figure 12. Time series of monthly averages of NO2 in the GMZ.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
147
Table 2. Mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum of the means and maximums of air pollutants in the GMZ from
2003-2007.
Means Maximum
X S Maximum Minimum X S Maximum Minimum
CO 1.858 0.634 4.883 0.316 8.844 5.310 53.600 0.200
NO2 0.034 0.010 0.089 0.006 0.118 0.068 0.526 0.006
NOX 0.057 0.023 0.232 0.005 0.329 0.157 2.536 0.012
O3 0.026 0.008 0.057 0.008 0.119 0.037 0.650 0.008
PM10 49.778 18.789 156.006 8.544 263.197 104.019 499.900 37.200
SO2 0.009 0.005 0.068 0.001 0.045 0.049 0.534 0.001
Meanwhile, monthly maximum values have significant
variations from 0.000 to 0.526 ppm. Maximum concen-
tration peaks do not present a cyclic behavior (Table 2
and Figure 13). The average value of the monthly maxi-
mum was 0.118 ± 0.068 ppm and the range of values is
between 0.006 - 0.526 ppm. In this case there is no spe-
cific area where maximum values occur, it is a problem
throughout the GMZ.
3.5. Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)
The monthly average concentrations have values below
the NOM, but above the EPA standard (values between
0.05 and 0.15 ppm). The average monthly mean was
0.057 ± 0.023 ppm and the range of monthly mean val-
ues is between 0.005 - 0.232 ppm (Table 2 and Figure
14). The monthly maximum values have significant
variations from 0.012 - 2.536 ppm. The maximum con-
centration peaks do not exhibit cyclic behavior. The
maximum value of the monthly average was 0.329 ±
0.157 ppm (Table 2 and Figure 15). There is no specific
area where maximum values occur, it is a problem
throughout the GMZ.
3.6. Ozone (O3)
The monthly average concentrations showed seasonal
variations with a tendency to remain constant during the
study period with values below the norm NOM. The
mean monthly averages were 0.026 ± 0.008 ppm and the
range of values is between 0.008 - 0.057 ppm (Table 2
and Figure 16). The monthly maximums in most cases
were over NOM and EPA standards and with a slight
tendency to increase in recent years. Substantial varia-
tions of 0.008 - 0.650 ppm in the maximum concentra-
tion peaks occur in the dry season and summer where
there is more sunlight and transformation of primary
pollutants to O3. The average monthly maximum was
0.119 ± 0.037 ppm (Table 2 and Figure 17). Most af-
fected areas are the center and southeast of GMZ, O3
pollution is considered moderate and represents a risk
factor for the health of the population.
3.7. Particles Less than 10 Microns (PM10)
The monthly average concentrations have values be-
tween 8.54 and 156.01 μg/m3, with most records within
the limits of EPA regulations and NOM. GMZ main-
tained without giving the same sample levels decline, so
PM10 represents the major pollutant. The mean monthly
average was 49.78 ± 18.79 μg/m3 (Table 2 and Figure
18). The monthly maximum values are above NOM and
EPA standards with a range of 37.20 - 500 μg/m3. Re-
corded values are well above the standards, which repre-
sent the main air pollutant of the GMZ. The average
value of the monthly maximum was 263.20 ± 104.02
μg/m3 (Table 2 and Figure 19). PM10 concentrations
represent a very important problem of environmental
pollution and risk factor to the health of the population
throughout the GMZ, however extreme events are lo-
cated in the south and southeast all year.
3.8. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
The monthly average concentrations ranged from 0.001
to 0.068 ppm. Values do not exceed EPA regulations and
are far from the NOM and are constant without trend.
SO2 is a pollutant of little influence on the health of the
population in the GMZ.
The mean monthly average was 0.009 ± 0.005 ppm
(Table 2 and Figure 20). The monthly maximum values
during the period are above the EPA standard, but below
the NOM, values ranging from 0.001 - 0.534 ppm. The
maximum value of the monthly averages was 0.045 ±
0.049 ppm (Table 2 and Figure 21). The most affected
areas are the central, south and southeast areas of the
GMZ, however, SO2 concentrations are not a contami-
ant risk to the health of the population in the GMZ. n

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
148
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05
mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05 ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of NO
2
(ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.21 ppm) USEPA (0.05 ppm)
Figure 13. Time series of monthly maximum NO2 in the GMZ.
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05
mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05 ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of NOx (ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.21 ppm) USEPA (0.05 ppm)
Figure 14. Time series of monthly averages of NOX in the GMZ.
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.500
3.000
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05
mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentración de NOx (ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.21 ppm) USEPA (0.05 ppm)
Figure 15. Time series of monthly averages of NOX in the GMA.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
149
0.000
0.020
0.040
0.060
0.080
0.100
0.120
0.140
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05 mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of O
3
(ppm)
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.11 ppm) USEPA (0.12 ppm)
Figure 16. Time series of monthly averages of O3 in the GMA.
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05 mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05 ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration o
f
O3 (ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.11 ppm) USEPA (0.12 ppm)
Figure 17. Time series of monthly maximum O3 in the GMZ.
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
180.0
ene-03 mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04 mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05 mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05 ene-06 mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07 mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of PM
10
(µg/m
3
)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (150 µg/m3) USEPA (50 µg/m3)
33
Figure 18. Time series of monthly averages of PM10 in the GMZ.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
150
0.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05
mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of PM
10
(µg/m
3
)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLAT OS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (150 µg/m3) USEPA (50 µg/m3)
33
Figure 19. Time series of monthly averages of PM10 in the ZMG.
0.000
0.020
0.040
0.060
0.080
0.100
0.120
0.140
ene-03
mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05
mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of SO
2
(ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.13 ppm) USEPA (0.03 ppm)
Figure 20. Time series of monthly averages of SO2 in the GMZ.
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
ene-03 mar-03
may-03
jul-03
sep-03 nov-03
ene-04
mar-04
may-04
jul-04
sep-04 nov-04
ene-05 mar-05
may-05
jul-05
sep-05 nov-05
ene-06
mar-06
may-06
jul-06
sep-06 nov-06
ene-07
mar-07
may-07
jul-07
sep-07 nov-07
Concentration of SO
2
(ppm)
MES
AGUILAS ATEMAJAC CENTRO LOMA DORADA MIRAVALLE
OBLATOS TLAQUEPAQUE VALLARTA NOM (0.13 ppm) USEPA (0.03 ppm)
Figure 21. Time series of monthly averages of SO2 in the GMZ.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
151
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
ENERO
FEBRERO
MARZO
ABRIL
MAYO
JUNIO
JULIO
AGOSTO
SEPTIEMBRE
OCTUBRE
NOVIEMBRE
DICIEMBRE
N
u
m
bero
f

q
u
er
i
es
p
er
m
o
n
thb
y

A
R
D
´s
Month
2003 20042005 2006 2007
’
3.9. Acute Respiratory Diseases (ARD’s) have a
Higher Incidence in the GMZ from 2003 to
2007
During the period 2003-2007 there were 1,067,551
ARD’s consultations in children under five years, in pub-
lic health institutions distributed as follows: in 2003 there
were 258,068, 2004 242,225, 2005 216,513, 2006
198,446 and 2007 with 152,299 (Figure 22). Annual av-
erage was 213,510 ± 41,209 visits.
The conditions with the highest percentage are acute
respiratory infections: acute nasopharyngitis, acute si-
nusitis, acute pharyngitis, acute laryngitis, acute traquitis,
acute infections of the upper respiratory tract of multiple
or unspecified sites, acute bronchitis and acute bronchio-
litis with 98.0% of consultations, followed by pneumonia
and bronchopneumonia with 1.1%, asthma and status
asthmaticus with 0.5% and streptococcal pharyngitis and
streptococcal tonsillitis with 0.4%.
Figure 23. Distribution of monthly consultations for ARDs
in the GMZ.
the acute respiratory diseases with TI, MV: temperature
(Temp), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS) and
wind direction (WD), and means, modes and monthly
maximums of AP (CO, SO2, NO2, NOX, PM10 and O3)
showed the highest significances for monthly averages,
followed by the maximum and modes.
The period with the highest number of inquiries by
ARD’s was from October to March, compared to the
annual total (Figure 23). The most affected area was the
southeast of the GMZ. The monthly trends show that the
months of November, December, February and March
are those with the highest percentage of respiratory dis-
eases (Figure 23).
An approximation of the effects of TI, MV and the
monthly average concentrations of AP that affect the
health of the population of the GMZ are: temperature
inversions (TI) showed significant correlation with the
ARD’s in three of the five years analyzed, the Temp in
two years, the HR in two years, the WS in 3 years, the
(WD) in two years, while NOX and NO2 pollutants
showed significant correlation with ARD’s throughout
the period analyzed. CO and SO2 showed significance in
two years. Meanwhile, PM10 and O3 showed significance
in one year. Moreover, considering the presence of a
variable related to the presence of others, which may en-
hance or counteract its effects (synergistic effect), in the
case of CO, NO2, NOX, O3, SO2 and PM10, they show
significant correlation with all variables in any of the five
years analyzed. Similarly, the MV (Temp, RH, WS and
WD) shows significant correlation with contaminants,
and TI in any of the years analyzed.
The distribution of medical unit shows that the medi-
cine units and hospitals of IMSS (clinics 48 Circun-
valación, 34 18 de Marzo, 53 Zapopan, 3 Centro Médico,
92 Miravalle and 93 Tonalá,) were those that showed the
greatest number of inquiries and are located in the
southeast, south and central areas of the city matchin-
gareas of higher air pollution (Figure 24).
3.10. Correlations and Multivariate Analysis
between TI, MV and AP vs. ARD’s
An analysis of the simple and multiple regression corre-
lations, variance analysis (ANOVA) and t-student test of
258068 242225
216513198446
152299
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Nu
m
be
r
o
f
que
r
i
esbyA
R
D
´s
Year
’
4. Conclusions and Discussion
With respect to TI 2005, it showed the maximum average
rate of 82.8%, the average temperature gradient of 3.8˚C
and the maximum average thickness of 201 m with the
average breaking time of 10:36 h. The year 2007 had the
highest percentage of moderate to heavy TI with 82.5%.
Throughout the period analyzed, the moderate and strong
TI are the most common and are concentrated in the dry
season months (November to May). February is the
month of greatest frequency of TI.
Air pollutants have variable behavior during the year
and between the years analyzed. It was evident that the
Figure 22. Distribution of annual consultations for ARDs in
the GMZ.

Temperature Inversions, Meteorological Variables and Air Pollutants and Their Influence on
Acute Respiratory Disease in the Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone, Jalisco, Mexico
152
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
UMF1-AGUAAZUL
UMF2-JESÚSGARCÍA
UMF3-BELISARIODOMÍNGUEZ
UMF4-ATEMAJAC
UMF8-LAEXPERIENCIA
UMF32-JARDINESDELSOL(Z
UMF34-18DEMARZO
UMF39-GLORIETAELÁLAMO(
UMF48-CIRCUNVALACIÓNDR.
UMF49-CUITLAHUAC
UMF51-LANORMAL
UMF52-12DEOCTUBRE
UMF53-ZAPOPAN(AV.LAUREL
UMF54-CAMICHINES(TLAQUEP
UMF56
UMF78-SANRAFAEL
UMF79-PARQUEALCALDE
UMF88-ELSAUZ
UMF91-ELFRESNO
UMF92-MIRAVALLE
UMF93-TONALA
UMF167-HERMOSAPROVINCIA
UMF171-LASÁGUILAS(ZAP.)
HGR45-AVALA
HGR46-LÁZAROCÁRDENAS
HGR110-OBLATOS
HGZ14-LAPAZ
HGZ89-CHAPULTEPECYWASHI
CLÍNICA1DELISSSTE
CLÍNICADELISSSTENO.3
CLÍNICADELISSSTENO.2
CSUECHEVERRÍA
CSUARBOLEDAS
CSULAZAROCÁRDENAS
CSUNUEVAESPAÑA
CSUPOLANQUITO
CSUCENTRONo1
CSUSANANDRÉSII
CSULANOGALERA
CSULOMASDELPARAÍSO
CSURANCHONUEVO
CSUGUADALAJARAN.3
CSULAAURORA.LAESPERANZA
CSUSANTACECILIA
CSUSANMIGUELHUENTITAN
CSULAGOSDEORIENTE
CSUSANANDRÉS
CSUCOL.LIBERTAD
CSUJARDINESDESANFCO.
CSUYUGUSLAVIA
CSULOMASDELGALLO
CSUBALCONESDEARRIBA
CSUARANDAS
CSUELBETHEL
CSUBUENOSAIRES
CSUCERRODEL4
CSULASJUNTAS
CSUSANPEDRITO
CSUSANTAROSALÍA
CSUROSALES
CSUZALATITAN
CSULOMASDELCAMICHIN
CSUMERCADOBOLA
CSUCONSTITUCIÓN
CSUATEMAJAC
Nu
m
bero
f

q
uerie
s
byARD´
s

Medicalunits(IMSS,ISSSTE,SSJ)
2003 20042005 2006 2007
’
Figure 24. Distribution consultations of ARDs in different medical units in the GMZ.
contaminant found in greater concentration was PM10,
followed by O3, NO2, NOX, CO and SO2. The most af-
fected areas are the southeast quadrant of the GMZ,
which has the highest records in both its maximum, ave-
rages and modes. CO contamination in the GMZ is con-
sidered hazardous to health only when peaks occur.
Concentrations of NO2 and NOX are important and rep-
resent a health risk to the population. O3 is moderate,
however, exposure to high concentrations represents a
health hazard. PM10 represent the main air pollutant of
GMZ and are an important problem of environmental
pollution and health risks of the population. SO2 was
below standards and poses no risk to the health of the
population. The most affected areas for AP are the
southeast, south and center and at times they present ex-
treme values in the rest of the GMZ.
As for the ARDs 2003 had the highest number of in-
quiries, the annual average in the period 2003-2007 was
213,510 ± 41,209 visits per year. The conditions with the
highest percentages were acute respiratory infections
98.0%, followed by pneumonia and bronchopneumonia
with 1.1%, asthma and status asthmaticus with 0.5% and
streptococcal pharyngitis and tonsillitis with 0.4%. The
months that showed the greatest number of consultations
for ARDs were from October to March, especially No-
vember, December, February and March. The distribu-
tion of disease per health care clinic demonstrates that 48
(Circunvalación), 34 (18 de Marzo), 53 (Zapopan), 3
(Centro Médico), 92 (Miravalle) y 93 (Tonalá) had the
highest number of ARDs consultations, these areas are
located in southeast, south and center of the city, and
such areas coincide with higher levels of air pollutants.
A statistical analysis showed that TI showed signifi-
cant correlation with the ARDs in three of the five years
analyzed, the Temp in two years, HR in two years, three
years WS, WD in two years, while the pollutants NOX
and NO2 showed significant correlation with ARDs
throughout the period analyzed. CO and SO2 showed
significance in two years. Meanwhile, PM10 and O3
showed only one significant year.
It also emerged that a variable may be related to the
presence of others, which may enhance or counteract its
effects (synergistic effect), in the case of CO, NO2, NOX,
O3, PM10 and SO2 they show a significant correlation
with all the variables in the five years analyzed. Similarly,
the MV (Temp, RH, WS and WD) correlates with the
contaminants and TI in any of the years analyzed.
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