Vol.1, No.3, 154-177 (2010) Agricultural Sciences
doi:10.4236/as.2010.13019
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessi ble at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
Energy and water saving by using modified closed
circuits of drip irrigation system
Hani Abdel-Ghani Mansour1*, Mohamed Yousif Tayel1, David A. Lightfoot2,
Abdel-Ghany Mohamed El-Gindy3
1Water Relations and Field Irrigation Department, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt; *Corresponding Author :
hanimansour88@yahoo.com
2Soil & Plant and Agricultural Systems Department, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA
3Agricultural Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Received 22 June 2010; revised 28 July 2010; accepted 3 August 2010.
ABSTRACT
The aim of this research was determine the en-
ergy and water use efficiencies under the modi-
fication of closed circuit drip irrigation systems
designs. Field experiments carried out on trans-
genic maize (GDH, LL3), (Zea Mays crop) under
two types of closed circuits: 1) One manifold for
lateral lines or Closed circuits with One Mani-
fold of Drip Irrigation System (CM1DIS); 2)
Closed circuits with Two Manifolds of Drip Irri-
gation System (CM2DIS), and 3) Traditional Drip
Irrigation System (TDIS) as a control. Three
lengths of lateral lines were used, 40, 60, and 80
meters. PE tubes lateral lines: 16 mm diameter;
30 cm emitters distance, and GR built-in emit-
ters 4 lph when operating pressure 1 bar under
Two levels slope conditions 0% and 2%. Ex-
periments were conducted at the Agric. Res.
Fields., Soil and Plant & Agric. System Dept.,
Agric. Faculty, Southern Illinois University, Car-
bondale (SIUC), Illinois, USA. Under 0% level
slope when using CM2DIS the increase percent
of Energy Use Efficiency (EUE) were 32.27,
33.21, and 34.37% whereas with CM1DIS were
30.84, 28.96, and 27.45% On the other hand
when level slope 2% were with CM2DIS 31.57,
33.14, and 34.25 while CM1DIS were 30.15, 28.98,
and 27.53 under lateral lengths 40, 60 and 80 m
respectively relative to TDIS. Water Use Effi-
ciency (WUE) when level slope 0% under
CM2DIS were 1.67, 1.18, and 0.87 kg/m3 com-
pared to 1.65, 1.16, and 0.86 kg/m3 with CM1DIS
and 1.35, 1.04, and 0.75 kg/m3 with TDIS whereas
with level slope 2% when using CM2DIS were
1.76, 1.29, and 0.84 kg/m3 compared to 1.77, 1.30,
and 0.87 kg/m3 with CM1DIS and 1.41, 1.12, and
0.76 kg/m3 (for lateral lengths 40, 60, and 80
meters respectively). Water saving percent var-
ied widely within individual lateral lengths and
between circuit types relative to TDIS. Under
slope 0% level CM2DIS water saving percent
values were 19.26, 12.48, and 14.03%; with
CM1DIS they were 18.51, 10.50, and 12.78%; and
under slope level 2% with CM2DIS they were
19.93, 13.26, and 10.38% and CM1DIS were 20.49,
13.96, and 13.23% (for lateral lengths 40, 60, 80
meters respectively). The energy use efficiency
and water saving were observed under CM2DIS
and CM1DIS when using the shortest lateral
length 40 meters, then lateral length 60 meters,
while the lowest value was observed when us-
ing lateral length 80 meters this result depends
on the physical and hydraulic characteristics of
the emitters, lateral line uniformity, and friction
losses. CM2DIS was more energy use efficiency,
EUE, water saving , and WUE than either CM1DIS
or TDIS.
Keywords: Drip Irrigation; Closed Circuits; Energy
Use Efficiency; Water Use Efficiency
1. INTRODUCTION
Drip irrigation system cutting edge technology in
irrigation has many advantages and is accompanied by
some of the problems and constraints as a problem low
compressor water at the end of irrigation lines subsidiary
has been proposed the development of closed-circuit by
adding some modifications to the traditional system of
drip irrigation to overcome this problem. According to
increasing areas irrigated by drip system in the Egyptian
desert at high rates, too, where this approach is su-
ccessful for the irrigation of fruit trees and some crop s of
vegetables and field crops.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
155
155
The unique drip irrigation system on the other that he is
part of the moisten the soil only and the other parts remain
dry throughout the season. This results in partial hydration
many benefits and few problems. Known as the drip
irrigation system so that it is adding water to the soil
directly in quantities close to field capacity. It is entirely
appropriate term for plant growth in the form of small
droplets to the plant roots where he pays a compressor
under low water ranges between 70 cm and from 15 meters
through the emitters are placed next to plants and the
disposal of these rate ranges emitters of 2-16 liters/hour.
Sources of fossil fuel are being rapidly depleted and
energy consumption is increasing at an exponential rate.
The International Energy Outlook 2006 (IEO, 2006)
projects strong growth for worldwide energy demand
over the period from 2003 to 2030. The total world con-
sumption of marketed energy expands from 421 quadril-
lion British thermal units (Btu) in 2003 to 563 quadril-
lion Btu in 2015; and then to 722 quadrillion Btu in 2030,
or a 71% increase over the 2003 to 2030 period Figur e 1.
Pimentel et al. [2] indicated that irrigation accounts
for 13% of the agricultural energy consumption. There
have been some attempts to power irrigation systems
with renewable energies, but most of the resulting sys-
tems where designed for large farms and the cost for
such systems is usually high. Designing successful irri-
gation systems powered with renewable energies for
small farms depends on many factors, such as climate,
crop, crop water needs, and type of irrigation system,
and the kind of the crop. More accurately, it depends on
the balance between the energy demand and supply. Due
to the large number of factors involved in the design
process of such a system, it is not easy to conduct ex-
periments to evaluate the effect of each factor so model-
ing the whole process enables investigation of the effect
of each factor without conducting expensive and labor
intensive field experiments.
World-wide, various types and models of drip or mi-
cro-irrigation have evolved. Aside from the basic tech-
nical differences, they differ in cost or affordability and
in water distribution uniformity. Among the most cost-
effective of these models is the drip kit developed by
International Development Enterprises (IDE). The drip
kit consists of microtube emitters inserted through plas-
tic tape roll laterals conn ected to polyethylene sub- main
pipes which in turn can be connected to a drum water
reservoir. The system can be operated by elevating the
drum reservoir at appreciable head, thereby eliminating
the need for a pumping unit. Typical operating heads of
the IDE drip kits range from 1.0 m to 3.0 m [3]. This
drip irrigation technology is suitable for developing
countries because of its low cost and simplicity of d esign
and installation . It has started ga ining po pularity in some
upland watersheds in the Southeast Asian countries of
the Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia for vegetable
production under agroforestry systems [4]. While distri-
bution unifor mity studies of some types of drip or trickle
irrigation systems have been undertaken [5], evaluation
of the performance of low-cost drip irrigation systems
such as that of IDE at different heads for a given slope
has not been fully explored. In fact, no rigorous study has
been carried out to determine recommendable operating
heads for such low-cost drip systems to generate certain
levels of water distribution uniformity especially under
sloping conditions. This study was conducted to determine
the effect of hydraulic head and slope on the water distri-
bution uniformity of the IDE ‘Easy Drip Kit’ and subse-
quently develop mathematical relationships to characterize
the effect of slope and head on water distribution uniform-
ity which can serve as the basis for optimizing water use
efficiency and crop productivity.
Pipelines are essential for the use of drip irrigation,
and they need to operate at much higher pressures (typi-
cally 1 - 2 bar for drip systems) and need to be strong
enough to withstand up to twice the working pressure.
The reason for this is that pressure surges which are
Figure 1. Global energy consumption from 1980 to 2003 and the projected consumption to 2030 in Quadrillion
BTU (sources: History; International Energy Annual 2003 [1], Projection; System for the Analysis of Global Energy
Markets 2006 (EIA)).
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
156
install a pipe with the co rrect pressure rating to av oid the
expense of repair or even replacement of a complete
system. Energy is needed in pipe systems not only to
pump water from the source to the pipe but also to
overcome the energy losses due to friction as water
flows down the pipe. If surface irrigation is used, then-
properly. Predicting head losses in pipes is not an exact
science and it easy to make mistakes when calculating
them. In addition, losses can increase as the pipe ages
and becomes rougher inside through continued use. For
these reasons the losses in the distribution system should
be kept low at the design stage by choosing pipe diame-
ters that are large enough for friction to not dominate the
operation of the system at some later date. As a guideline,
energy losses in the pipes should be less than 30% of the
total pumping head.
Energy is another word commonly used in everyday
language, but in hydraulics and irrigation it has a very
specific meaning: - Energy enables useful work to be
done. In irrigation, energy is needed to lift or pump wa-
ter. Water energy is supplied by a pumping device driven
by human or animal power, or a motor using solar, wind
or fossil fuel energy.
The system of energy transfer is not perfect and en-
ergy losses occur through friction between the moving
parts and are usually lost as heat energy (the human
body temperature rises when work hard; an engine heats
as fuel is burnt to provide power). Energy losses can be
significant in pumping systems, and so can be costly in
terms of fuel use [6].
Qualitative classification standards for the production
of emitters, The emitter discharge rate (q) has been de-
scribed by a power law,
x
qkH, where operating
pressure (H), emitter coefficient (k), and exponent (x)
depend on emitter characteristics [7,8]. According to the
manufacturer’s coefficient of emitter variation (CVm),
have been developed by ASAE. CVm values below 10%
are suitable and > 20% areunacceptable [9]. The emitter
discharge variation rate (qvar) should be evaluated as a
design criterion in drip irrigation systems; qvar < 10%
may be regarded as good and qvar > 20% as unaccept-
able [10,11]. Differences in emitter geometry may be
caused by variation in injection pressure and heat insta-
bility during their manufacture, as well as by a hetero-
geneous mixture of materials used for the production [8].
Lamm et al. [12] utilizes this method in calculating the
distribution uniformity of drip laterals applying waste-
water from a beef lagoon. Distribution uniformities
ranged from 54.3% to 97.9% for the tubing evaluated.
Only a small percentage of emitter plugging can re-
duce the application uniformity [13]. Talozi and Hills
[14] have modeled the effects of emitter and lateral
clogging on the discharge of water through all laterals.
Results show that the discharge from laterals that were
simulated to be clogged decreased while laterals that
were not clogged increased. In addition to decreases in
discharge for emitters that were clogged, the model
showed an increase of pressure at the manifold inlet.
Due to the increased inlet pressure, a lower discharge
rate by the pump was observed.
Berkowitz [15] observed reductions in emitter irri- ga-
tion flow ranging from 7 to 23% at five sites observed.
Reductions in scouring velocities were also observed
from the designed 0.6 m/s (2ft/s) to 0.3 m/s (1ft/s). Lines
also developed some slime build-up, as reflected by the
reduction in scouring velocities, but this occurred to a
less degree with higher quality effluent.
In their treatments they generally used approximate
friction equations such as Hazen-Williams and Scobey,
neglected the variation of the velocity head along the
lateral and assumed initial uniform emitter flow. War-
rick and Yitayew [16] assumed a lateral with a lon- gitu-
dinal slot and presented design charts based on spa-
tially varied flow. The latter solution has neglected the
presence of laminar flow in a considerable length of the
downstream part of the lateral. Hathoot et al. [17] pro-
vided a solution based on uniform emitter discharge but
took into account the change of velocity head and the
variation of Reynold’s number. They used the Darcy-
Weisbach friction equation in estimating friction losses.
Hathoot et al. [18] considered individual emitters with
variable outflow and presented a step by step computer
program for designing either the diameter or the lateral
length. In this study we considered the pressure head
losses due to emitters protrusion. These losses occur
when the emitter barb protrusion obstructs the water
flow. Three sizes of emitter barbs were specified, small,
medium and large in which the small barb has an area
equal or less than 20 mm2, the medium barb has an area
between 21-31 mm2 and the large one has an area equal
to or more than 32 mm2 Watters et al. [19].
The objectives of the present research were:
1) Investigate emitter discharge application uniformity
and its dependence on operation pressures and Laterals
lengths (40, 60, and 80 m).
2) To compare water and energy use efficiencies be-
tween Tow type of closed circuits (COMDIS and
CTMDIS) relative to Traditional Drip System (TDIS).
2. MATERIALS and METHODS
2.1. Site Location and Experiments Design
This experiment was conducted at Irrigation Devices
and Equipments Tests Laboratory, Agricultural Engi-
neering Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center,
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
157
157
Cairo, Egypt, The experimental design was randomized
complete block with three replicates. Three irrigation
Lateral Lines 40, 60, 80 m long that were installed at
constant level and under Ten operating pressures 0.2, 0.4,
0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0 bar for Ten min-
utes at each pressure. Details of the pressure and water
supply control have been described by (Safi et al., 2007),
to evaluate the Built-in Dripper (GR), discharge, 4 lph
design emitter spacing of 30 cm at 1 bar nominal oper-
ating pressure in order to reach an modified way to re-
solve the problem of lack of pressure at the end of lateral
lines in the traditional drip irrigation system.
2.2. Field Experimental Site
This field experiment was conducted at the Experi-
mental Farm of Faculty of Agriculture Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale (SIUC). District (latitude
37º.73 N, altitude 89º.16 W, Height about 118 m/387 feet
above sea level), Illinois, USA.
2.3. Drip System Components
The components of closed circuits the drip system in-
clude, supply lines, control valves, supply and return
manifolds, drip lateral lines, drip emitters, check valves
and air relief valves/vacuum breakers. Figures 2, 3 show
the closed circuits of drip irrigation system: 1) Closed
circuit with Tow Manifold of Drip Irrigation System
(CTMDIS) and 2) Closed circuit with One Manifold of
Drip Irrigation System (COMDIS) while Figure 4 is
Figure 3. Traditional of Drip Irrigation System (TDIS).
Supply lines provide water to the supply manifolds of
the system after passing through the zone control valve
in systems with more than one zone. The supply mani-
fold distributes water to the individual drip laterals
within the zone. The laterals then connect to a return
manifold. Along the supply and return manifold, air
Figure 2. Layout of closed circuit with tow manifolds of drip irrigation system (CM2DIS).
Figure 3. Layout of closed circuits with one manifold of drip irrigation system (CM1DIS).
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
158
Figure 4. Layout of traditional drip irrigation system (TDIS).
relief/vacuum breakers are installed at the highest point
of the manifolds to allow air to enter the system during
depressurization (Netafim, 2002).
The return manifold is used during system flushing to
collect water from the laterals and carry it to the return
line which returns to the pretreatment device. Prior to
connecting the return manifold to the return line a check
valve is installed to prevent water from entering the zone
during the operation of other zones.
2.4. Head Loss in a Pipe
The flow in the pipe throughput depends on pipe sur-
face roughness and air layer resistance. The change of
hydraulic friction coefficient values, depending on varia-
tions in Re number values. Hydraulic losses at plastic
pipes might be calculated as losses at hydraulically
smooth pipes, multiplied by correction coefficients that
assess losses at pipe joints and air resistance.
2.5. Head Loss in a Pipe
The flow in the pipe throughput depends on pipe sur-
face roughness and air layer resistance. The change of
hydraulic friction coefficient values, depending on varia-
tions in Re number values. Hydraulic losses at plastic
pipes might be calculated as losses at hydraulically
smooth pipes, multiplied by correction coefficients that
assess losses at pipe joints and air resistance.
The energy loss (or head loss) in pipes due to water
flow is proportional to the pipe’s length.
H
JL
(1)
J = The head loss in a pipe is usually expressed by ei-
ther % or ‰ (part per thou sand).
Coefficient of friction is given by: Mogazhi (1998)
and Bombardelli and Garcia (2003).
The head loss due to friction is calculated by Hazen-
Williams equation:
121.852 4.87
1.21 10()
Q
JD
C
 (2)
where
J = head loss is expressed by (m/100 m) or %.
Q = flow rate is expressed by m³/h.
D = Inside diameter of a pipe is expressed by mm.
C = (Hazen-Williams coefficient) smoothness (the
roughness) of the internal pipe, (the range for a com-
mercial pipe is 100 – 150).
For polyethelene tubes when diameter < 40 mm and
(C = 150). Mogazhi (1998) and Bombardelli and Garcia
(2003).
Hathoot et al. (1994) for laminar flow where R
2000 the
64
fR
(3)
in which R, Reynolds number is given by:
VD
R
(4)
where: R = Reynolds number,
V = flow velocity (m/s),
D = inside diameter (m), and
ν = kinematic viscosity of irrigation water.
Critical velocity could be calculated by (10) and the
following equations.
For turbulent flow (3000 R 105) the Blasius
equation can be used:
0.25
0.316fR
(5)
For fully turbulent flow, 105 R 107, recom-
mended the following equation.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
159
159
0.172
0.13fR
During design of the sewerage pipelines, partially
filled pipes with free-surface flow are calculated. Hy-
draulic calculations are performed using the formulas
applicable in the case of pressure flow, when the pipe is
filled. These formulas do not tak e into account the resis-
tance of air above the fluid surface, which decreases as
the pipe filling is reduced. General graphs Manual of
practice, 1992 are recommended for calculation of actual
pipe throughput.
2.6. Measurements of Maize (Zea Mays L.)
Yield
Plant measurements:
Components of yield were that measured grain weight
Kg/ha.
Water use efficiency:
Water use efficiency is an indicator of effectiveness
use of irrigation unit for increasin g crop yield. Water use
efficiency of seed yield was calculated from Eq.1.
2.7. Calculating Energy Requirement
The amount of energy needed to pump water depends
on the volume of water to be pumped and the head re-
quired and can be calculated using the formula:
Water energy (kWh) = volume of water (m3) × head
(m)/367 (8)
Increasing either the volume of water or the h ead will
directly increase the energy required for pumping.
Energy use efficiency [5]
Water energy (kWh) = water power (kW) × operating-
time (h) (9)
Pumping plant efficiency (%) = (water energy/actual
energy) × 100 (10)
Power use efficiency [5]
Water power (kW) = 9.81 × discharge (m3/s) × head
(m) (11)
Pumping plant power efficiency (%) = (water power/
power input) × 100 (12)
Head loss due to friction
The head loss due to friction was calculated using the
Darcy-Weisbach equation:


2
//2hfLD vg (13)
where h = head loss, m; f = friction factor ; L = leng th of
pipe, m; D = inner diameter of pipe work, m; v = ve-
locity of fluid, m/s; g = cceleration due to gravity, m/s2.
Friction factor can be expressed as:
64 /
f
R
(For Re 2000) (14)
0.25
0.32 e
fR
 (For Re 2000) (15)
where Re = Reynolds’ number, which can be expressed
as:
/
e
RvD
(16)
where v = fluid velocity, m/sec; D = Internal pipe dia-
meter of lateral, m; and ν = kinematic viscosity of water
= 1 × 10-6 m²/sec, at 200C.
Velocity v can be expressed as:
/vQA
(17)
where, Q = lateral flow rate (average flow rate per emit-
ter × number of emitters), and A = cross sectional area of
lateral.
The calculated emission rates were then compared
with the measured values to see the differences between
them.
2.8. Using Computer Program for
Hydraulic Calculations
HydroCalc irrigation system planning software is de-
signed to help the user to define the parameters of an
irrigation system. The user will be able to run the pro-
gram with any suitable parameters, review the output,
and change input data in order to match it to the appro-
priate irrigation system set up. Some parameters may be
selected from a system list; whereas other are entered by
the user according to their own needs so they do not
conflict with the program’s limitations. The software
package includes an opening main window, five calcula-
tion programs, one language setting window and a data-
base that can be modified and updated by the user.
HydroCalc includes several sub-programs as:
The Emitters program calculates the cumulative pres-
sure loss, the average flow rate, the water flow velocity
etc. in the selected emitter. It can be changed to suit the
desired irrigation system parameters.
The SubMain program calculates the cumulative
pressure loss and the water flow velocity in the submain
distributing water pipe (single or telescopic). It changes
to suit the required irrigation system parameters.
The Main Pipe program calculates the cumulative


3
3
Total seedyieldton / fed.
WUE ofseedyieldton/m=Total applied irrigationwaterm/ fed.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
160
pressure loss and the water flow velocity in the main
conducting water pipe (single or telescopic). It changes
to suit the required irrigation system parameters.
The Shape Wizard program helps transfer the re-
quired system parameters (Inlet Lateral Flow Rate,
Minimum Head Pressure) from the Emitters program to
the SubMain program.
The Valves program calculates the valve friction loss
according to the given parameters.
The Shifts program calculates the irrigation rate and
number of shifts needed according to the given parame-
ters.
The Emitters program is the first application which
can be used in the frame of HydroCalc software program.
There are 4 basic type of emitters which can be used:
Drip Line, on line, Sprinklers and Micro-Sprinklers.
According to the previous selection the user can opt for a
specific emitter which can be a pressure compensated or
a non pressure compensated.
Each emitter has its own set of nominal flow rate val-
ues available. After the previous mentioned fields were
completed, the program automatically fills t he following
fields: “Inside Diameter”, “KD” and “Exponent”, values
which cannot be ch anges unless the ch ange will be made
in the database. The segment length is next field in
which the user must introduce a value. The end pressure
represents the actual value for calculation of pressure at
the furthest emitter. There are some common values for
this field: around 10 m for drippers, around 20 m for
mini-sprinklers, between 20 – 30 m for sprinklers and
around 2 m when using the flushing system. There are 2
more options which can be filled before starting the
computation, options which can also be used with their
default values. The Flushing field can be used if the user
intends to calculate a system that includes and lateral
flushing. Flushing option will work only in subsequently
will be used the “Emitter Line Length” calculation
method. The second option is about topography. Default
value is 0%. Topography field has 2 sub-fields: fixed
slope and changing slope. Usually the slopes values are
not exceeding 10%. In many cases the slope is not uni-
form.
3. VALIDATION of MEASURED DATA
WITH CALCULATED DATA BY
HYDROCALC
The emission rate for 10 emitters tested for each Lat-
eral line for lengths (40, 60 and 80 m) at three stages
First, middle and end on the line were calculated theo-
retically using the following procedu re.
The head loss due to friction and insertion of emitters
was calculated and then the pressure head at every emit-
ter was determined. The emission from every emitter
was calculated using the characteristic equation devel-
oped for pressure head vs. di scharge f or ea ch product.
3.1. Field Experiments
Field experiments were carried out through one suc-
cessive growing season (2009/2010) under three closed
circuits of drip irrigation systems, 1) One manifold for
lateral lines or Closed circuits with One Manifold of
Drip Irrigation System (CM1DIS); 2) Closed circuits
with Two Manifolds of Drip Irrigation System
(CM2DIS), and 3) Traditional Drip Irrigation System
(TDIS) as a control. Lateral lines length were 40, 60 and
80 meters. PE tubes lateral lines: 16 mm diameter; 30
cm space drippers, and GR built-in drippers 4 lph for
length unit when operating pressure 1 bar. Soil of ex-
perimental field represents the silty clay loam plots area
has been showed in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Layout of the experimental plots: Treatment L = 40 m; L = 60 m and L = 80 m different Field conditions
Slope 0%; Slope 2% levels.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
161
161
3.2. Soil Characteristics
Soil particle size distribution was carried out using
pipette method after Gee and Bauder (20) as shown in
Table 1.
Soil pH and EC were measured in 1:2.5 soil water
suspensions and in soil past extract, respectively accord-
ing to Jackson (21) as show in Table 2.
Irrigation water analysis:
Ground water is the source of irrigation water. Irriga-
tion water analysis is given in Table 3.
3.3. Description of Installation
The project was carried out during the irrigation sea-
son of the year 2009/2010 on the farm of the Experi-
mental Farm of Faculty of Agriculture Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale (SIUC) Figures 4, 6, 7. A drip
irrigation system was installed on the plots and here the
effect of Connection methods of closed circuits
(CM1DIS; CM2DIS) and different Lateral Lengths (40,
60 and 80 m) on the maize yield was studied and evalu-
ated.
3.4. Statistical Analysis
All th e colle cted data wer e subj ected to the s tatis tica l
analysis as the usual technique of analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and the least significant difference (L.S.D)
between systems at 1% had been done. The random-
ized complete block design according to Dospekhov
(1984).
4. RESULTS AND DIS CUS SIONS
4.1. Effect of Different Operating Pressures
on Drippers Change of Discharges on
Lateral Lines when Slope 0%.
In Table 4 an d Fig ures 8-10 we can be observed there
was a direct relationship between the operating pressures
and the average discharge of lateral lines along the lines
in all cases and this is logical. When operating pressure
0.8 bar was under used CM2DIS method, the average of
discharge when lateral length 40 m was 4.48 Lph and
when using the CM1DIS and the value of the average
Table 1. Some p hysical properties of Carbondale site.
Particle Size Distribution, %
Sample depth,
cm C. Sand F. Sand Silt Clay F.C., % W.P., % AW Texture
class
0-15 3.4 29.6 39.5 27.5 32.35 17.81 14.44 S.C.L
15-30 3.6 29.7 39.3 27.4 33.51 18.53 14.98 S.C.L
30-45 3.5 28.5 38.8 28.2 32.52 17.96 14.56 S.C.L
45-60 3.8 28.7 39.6 27.9 32.28 18.61 13.67 S.C.L
S.C.L.: Silty Cl ay Loam
Table 2. Some chemical properties of Carbondale site.
Soluble Cations, meq/L Soluble Anions, meq/L
Sample
depth, cm pH 1:2.5 Ec dS/m Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K
+ CO3-- HCO3- SO4-- CL-
0-15 7.3 0.35 0.50 0.49 0.52 0.22 0.00 0.58 0.30 0.38
15-30 7.2 0.36 0.51 0.50 0.48 0.24 0.00 0.68 0.41 0.49
30-45 7.3 0.34 0.63 0.54 0.46 0.23 0.00 0.79 0.43 0.63
45-60 7.4 0.73 0.67 0.58 0.44 0.21 0.00 0.87 0.44 0.74
Table 3. Some chemical data of irrigation water at Carbondale site.
Soluble Cations, meq/L Soluble Anions, meq/L
pH EC dS/m Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K
+ HCO3- SO4-- CL--
SAR
7.3 0.37 1.52 065 3.19 0.29 1.80 0.38 3.10 3.20
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
162
Table 4. Comparison between Reggrition Cooeficients R² among the pessures and discharges values when slope 0%.
R² Value when Lateral Length (m)
Irrigation manifold connec-
tions Method 40 60 80
CM2DIS 0.9712 0.9506 0.9397
CM1DIS 0.9693 0.9414 0.9368
TDIS 0.9565 0.9354 0.9153
discharge was 4.20 Lph under the same length of the
line.
While with the change in the operating pressure where
it’s increased to 1.0 bar. When the length of lateral lines
was 40m, the average value of the discharge in this case
was 4.48 Lph under using CM2DIS While the average
value of the discharge was 4.33 Lph with using the
method CM1DIS.The lateral lines at all cases of Control
TDIS and lengths 60 and 80 m under used (CM2DIS,
CM1DIS), the average value of the discharge didn’t
reach the standard value for this type of drippers (GR
Built-in) where the standard value for this type of drip-
pers is 4 Lph at the operating pressure is 1.0 bar as
showing below the Table 4 and Figures 8-10.
Data in Table 4 and Figures 8-10 show the rela-
tionship between different pressures (bar) and the dis-
charge (Lph) for the closed circuits different connection
methods, CM2DIS and CM1DIS with used different
lateral length 40 m the discharge be arrived to the stan-
dard value of this dripper type when the pressure value
was 0.8 bar. While with used lateral length 60 m under
CM2DIS, the discharge be arrived to the standard value
when the pressure value was 1.2 bar. By compared with
TDIS when the same conditions we didn’t arrived to the
standard discharge at the three lateral lengths 40, 60 and
80 m absolutely.
According to the Regression coefficient R² as show in
Ta b le 4 and Figures 8-10, we can note that when used
the closed circuits CM2DIS the values of R² were 0.971,
0.950 and 0.939 with Lateral lengths 40, 60 and 80 m
Figure 6. HydroCalc irrigatio n plann ing.
respectively. Under used CM1DIS R² values were 0.969,
0.941 and 0.936 with lateral lengths 40, 60, and 80 m,
respectively. While under used the traditional drip sys-
tem TDIS R² values were (0.956, 0.935 , and 0.915) with
lateral lengths 40, 60 and 80 m, respectively. This mean
that the best regression between the different pressures
and discharges when used lateral length 40 m under
CM2DIS and CM1DIS.
Figure 7. Flow chart components of HydroCalc simulation
program for planning, design, and calculating the hydraulic
analysis of drip irrigation system at different slopes or levels.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
163
163
The Selected Drippers on the lateral lines of (CM2DIS)
Figure 8. Effect of different operating pressures (bar) on discharges of the closed circuits connections
(CM2DIS) type when slope 0%.
4.2. Effect of Different Operating Pressures
on Drippers Discharge on Lateral Lines
when Slope 2%
In Table 5 and Figures 11-13 we can be observed
there was a direct relationship between the operating
pressures and the average discharge of lateral lines along
the lines in all cases and this is logical. When operating
pressure 0.8 bar was under used CM2DIS method, the
average of discharge when lateral length 40 m was 4.46
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
164
The Selected Drippers on the lateral lines of (CM1DIS)
Figure 9. Effect of different operating pressures (bar) on discharges of the closed circuits connections (cm1dis)
type when slope 0%.
Lph and when using the CM1DIS and the value of the
average discharge was 4.32 Lph under the same lateral
line length.
While with the change in the operating pressure where
it’s increased to 1.0 bar. When the length of lateral lines
was 40m, the average value of the discharge in this case
was 4.56 Lph under using CM2DIS While the average
value of the discharge was 4.45 Lph with using the
method CM1DIS.The lateral lines at all cases of Control
TDIS and lengths 60 and 80 m under used (CM2DIS,
CM1DIS), the average value of the discharge didn’t
reach the standard value for this type of drippers (GR
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
165
165
The Selected Drippers on the lateral lines of (TDIS)
Figure 10. Effect of different operating pressures (bar) on discharges of the traditional drip system (TDIS)
when slope 0%.
Table 5. Comparison between Reggrition Cooeficients R² among the pessures and discharges values when slope 2%.
R² Value when Lateral Length (m) Irrigation manifold
connections Method 40 60 80
CM2DIS 0.9756 0.9618 0.9531
CM1DIS 0.9713 0.9463 0.9251
TDIS 0.9625 0.9552 0.9314
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
166
The Selected Drippers on the lateral lines of (CM2DIS)
Figure 11. Effect of different operating pressures (bar) on discharges of the closed circuits conn ect ions
(CM2DIS) type when slope 2%.
Built-in) where the standard value for this type of drip-
pers is 4 Lph at the operating pressure is 1.0 bar as
showing below the Table 5 and Figures 11-13.
Data in Table 5 and Figures 11-13 show the rela-
tionship between different pressures (bar) and the dis-
charge (Lph) for the closed circuits different connection
methods, CM2DIS and CM1DIS with used different
lateral length 40 m the discharge be arrived to the stan-
dard value of this dripper type when the pressure value
was 0.8 bar. While with used lateral length 60 m under
CM2DIS, the discharge be arrived to the standard value
when the pressure value was 1.2 bar. By compared with
TDIS when the same conditions we didn’t arrived to the
standard discharge at the three lateral lengths 40, 60 and
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
167
167
The Selected Drippers on the lateral lines of (CM2DIS)
Figure 12. Effect of different operating pressures (bar) on Discharges of the closed circuits connections (CM1DIS)
type when slope 2%.
80 m absolutely.
According to the Regression coefficient R² as show in
Table 5 and Figures 11-13, we can note that when used
the closed circuits CM2DIS the values of R² were
0.9756, 0.9618 and 0.9531 with Lateral lengths 40 , 60
and 80 m respectively. Under used CM1DIS R² values
were 0.9713, 0.9463 and 0.9251 with lateral lengths 40,
60, and 80 m, respectively. While under used the tradi-
tional drip system TDIS R² values were (0.9625, 0.9552,
and 0.9314) with lateral length s 40, 60 and 80 m, respec-
tively. This mean that the best regression between the
different pressures and discharges when used lateral
length 40 m under CM2DIS and CM1DIS.
We can note also the pressure value of effective more
(PVEM) when slope 0 and 2%, its value which make
large increase in the discharge and after this value the
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
168
The Selected Drippers on the lateral lines of (CM2DIS)
Figure 13. Effect of different operating pressures (bar) on discharges of the traditional drip system (tdis) when
slope 2%.
discharge can’t decrease, Absolutely. When used CM2DIS
connection method at all lateral leng ths 40, 60, and 80 m
the PVEM was 0.6 bar, and under CM1DIS, with all
lateral lengths treatments 40, 60, and 80 m the PVEM
was 0.8 bar, while the traditional drip method at all lat-
eral lengths 40, 60, and 80 m the PVEM was 1.0 bar.
5. VALIDATION of LATERAL LINES
HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS by
HYDROCALC SIMULATION
PROGRAM WHEN SLOPE 0% AND
2%
5.1. Validation of Hydrocalc Simulation
Program
The discharges and pressures head at three sites along
the laterals drip line (Start, Middle and End) closed cir-
cuit connection drip irrigation systems [closed circuit
with tow separates manifold lines (CM2DIS), closed
circuit with one manifold line (CM1DIS), and the tradi-
tional drip system (TDIS) as a control] with different
lateral lengths (40, 60, and 80 m) were measured under
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
169
169
field conditions for two different slopes of the drip line
(0 and 0.2%) to validate the drip simulation program
(HydroCalc Simulation program copyright 2009 devel-
oped by NETAFIM, USA), which is a computer simula-
tion Program for planning and design of drip or sprinkler
irrigation systems as used for Modification of closed
circuit drip lateral lines irrigation, depends on the hy-
draulic equations such as, Hazen-William’s Eq., Per-
nolli’s Eq., etc. The inputs were illustrated in Table 6.
Data show in Table 6, are the inputs of HydroCalc
simulation program to simulate closed circuit of drip
irrigation systems under field conditions with two slopes
0% and 2% of HydroCalc simulation progrm under
(CM2DIS, CM1DIS, TDIS)). The predicted outputs of
HydroCalc simulation program (Exponent (X), pressure
head loss (m), Velocity (m/s), and pressure analysis
along the drippers lateral line) Figures 14-16 depend on
the field measurements of pressures and discharge, as
well as the predicted the field distribution uniformity.
5.2. Predicted and Measured Head Loss
Analysis along the Lateral Dripper
Line of Closed Circuits under 0%
Slope
The predicted head loss analysis along the lateral
drippers line had been calculated by HydroCalc simula-
tion program for closed circuits drip irrigation systems
CM2DIS and CM1DIS compared with TDIS when slope
0% with different Lateral lengths 40, 60, and 80 m.
Figures 14-16 and Ta b l e 7 show the relationship be-
tween predicted and measured head losses as well as
regressions and correlations Under CM2DIS, CM1DIS,
and TDIS methods when slope 0% level. It is obvious
that the irrigation methods under study when using Lat-
eral Length 40 m could be arranged in the following
ascending order according the values of the predicted
and measured head losses CM2DIS < CM1DIS < TDIS.
According to the Lateral Length 60 m. the irrigation
methods could put in the following ascending orders
CM1DIS < CM2DIS < TDIS. While by using Lateral
length 80m the values of the predicted and measured
head losses under irrigation methods could be arranged
in the following ascend ing ord ers CM2DIS < CM1DIS <
TDIS. This may be attributed to the different of numbers
or how many dripper built-in with every lateral line
length.
5.3. Predicted and Measured Head Loss
Analysis along the Lateral Dripper
Line of Closed Circuits under 2%
Slope
The predicted head loss analysis when slope 2% along
the lateral drippers line direction had been calculated by
HydroCalc simulation program for closed circuits drip
Table 6. Inputs of hydrocalc simulation program for closed circuits drip irrigation systems.
Manifold Drip line Emitters
Name Value Name Value Name Value
Pipe type: PVC Tubes type PE Emitter type Built in
Pipe length: ----- Tubes lengths: 40, 60, and 80 m Emitter Flow (Lph) 4.0
Pipe diameter: 0.05 m Inner diameter 0.0142 m E mitters distance 0.30 m
(C) Pipe Roughness: 150 (C) Pipe Roughness 150 Press Head Require (m) 10.0 m
Slope: 0 m/ m Slope 0 or 0.02 m/m Calculation Method Flow Rate Variation
Extra energy losses: 0.064 Spacing 0.7 m --- ---
Table 7. Outputs Predicted of hydraulic analysis by hydrocalc simulation program for closed circuits drip irrigation systems with
different slopes 0 and 2%.
Irrigation connection method
CM2DIS CM1DIS TDIS
Field
slope
(%)
Drip line
length (m) Expo-
nent (x) Head loss
(m) Velocity
(m/s) Expo-
nent (x)Head
loss (m)Velocity
(m/s) Exponent
(x) Head
loss (m) Velocity
(m/s)
40 0.72 0.64 1.58 0.69 0.73 1.55 0.58 1.43 1.52
60 0.65 1.48 1.63 0.61 1.55 1.57 0.55 2.35 1.64 0
80 0.58 3.00 1.92 0.52 3.11 1.88 0.53 3.58 2.18
40 0.76 0.45 1.51 0.71 0.76 1.51 0.63 1.38 1.51
60 0.68 1.34 1.57 0.64 1.55 1.55 0.59 2.26 1.62
2
80 0.61 2.92 1.89 0.58 3.00 1.74 0.55 3.37 1.97
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
170
Figure 14. The relationship between different lateral lengths 40, 60; 80 m and both of predicted and measured head
loss when slope 0% with closed circuits CM2DIS method.
irrigation systems CM2DIS and CM1DIS compared with
TDIS with different Lateral lengths 40, 60, and 80 m, as
show Figures 17-19 and Ta ble 7 shows the relationship
between predicted and measured head losses as well as
regressions and correlations Under irrigation methods
under study when slope 2% level.
Methods could put in the following ascending orders
CM2DIS < CM1DIS < TDIS.
Irrigation methods under study when using Lateral
Length 60 m could be arr anged in the following ascend-
ing order according the values of the predicted and
measured head losses CM1DIS < CM2DIS < TDIS.
While by using Lateral length 80 m the values of the
predicted and measured head losses under irrigation
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
171
171
Figure 15. The relationship between different lateral lengths 40, 60; 80 m and both of predicted and measured head
loss when slope 0% with closed circuits CM1DIS method.
methods could be arranged in the following ascending
orders CM2DIS < CM1DIS < TDIS . This may be attrib-
uted to the different of numbers or how many dripper
built-in with every lateral line length . The regression (R²)
and correlation (Corr.) had been obtained for comparing
the predicted and measured head loss along the lateral
lines of all the closed circuits methods. Generally, the
values of regression and correlation analysis were (>
0.90) were obtained by using 0 and 2% field slope and
40, 60, and 80m lengths (experimental conditions) for all
closed circuits.
5.4. Energy Saving Comparison between All
Closed Circuits under Study
It is worthy to men tion that th e data in Table 8 indicate
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
172
Figure 16. The relationship between different lateral lengths 40, 60; 80 m and both of predicted and measured head
loss when slope 0% with closed circuits TDIS method.
to that the highest values of energy saving were when
using slope 2% level under CM2DIS were (31.57; 33.14
and 34.25%), then CM1DIS (30.15; 28.98 and 27.53%)
with used Lateral lengths (40; 60 and 80 m), respectively
comparing by TDIS.
While the energy saving values with slope 0% were
under CM2DIS (32.27; 33.21 and 34.37%), and under
CM1DIS (30.84; 28.96 and 27.45%) when using lateral
lengths (40; 60 and 80 m), respectively relative to tradi-
tional drip system TDIS as a control.
6. WATER USE EFFICIENCY (WUE)
Data in Tabl es 9, 10 show that, Water Use Efficiency
(WUE) when level slope 0% under CM2DIS were 1.67,
1.18, and 0.87 kg/m3 compared to 1.65, 1.16, and 0.86
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
173
173
Figure 17. The relationship between different lateral lengths 40, 60; 80 m and both of predicted and measured head
loss when slope 2% with closed circuits CM2DIS method.
kg/m3 with CM1DIS and 1.35, 1.04, and 0.75 kg/m3 with
TDIS whereas with level slope 2% when using CM2DIS
were 1.76, 1.29, and 0.84 kg/m3 compared to 1.77, 1.30,
and 0.87 kg/m3 with CM1DIS and 1.41, 1.12, and 0.76
kg/m3 (for lateral lengths 40, 60, and 80 meters respec-
tively).
7. CONCLUSIONS
It could be concluded that:
The pressure value of effective more when slope 0%
and 2% (PVEM) it’s value which make large increase in
the discharge and after this value the discharge can’t
decrease, Absolutely. When used CM2DIS connection
method at all lateral lengths 40, 60, and 80 m the PVEM
was 0.6 bar, and under CM1DIS, with all lateral lengths
treatments 40, 60, and 80 m the PVEM was 0.8 bar,
while the traditional drip method at all lateral lengths 40,
60, and 80 m the PVEM was 1.0 bar.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
174
Figure 18. The relationship between different lateral lengths 40, 60; 80 m and both of predicted and measured
head loss when slope 2% with closed circuits CM1DIS method.
Irrigation systems at 40, 60, 80 m could be arranged
according to Energy Use Efficiency (EUE), Water Use
Efficiency (WUE), in the following ascending order:
TDIS < CM1DIS < CM2DIS. Irrigation systems at 40,
60, 80 m could be arranged according to friction losses
of lateral lines in the following ascending order:
CM2DIS < CM1DIS < TDIS.
Under 0% level slope in when using CM2DIS the in-
creases percentage of Energy Use Efficiency (EUE)
were 32.27, 33.21, and 34.37% while with CM1DIS
were 30.84, 28.96, and 27.45% whereas under slope 2%
were with CM2DIS 31.57, 33.14, and 34.25 on the other
hand CM1DIS were 30.15, 28.98, and 27.53 under lat-
eral lengths 40, 60 and 80 m respectively relative to
TDIS.
Water Use Efficiency (WUE) when level slope 0%
under CM2DIS were 1.67, 1.18, and 0.87 kg/m3 com-
pared to 1.65, 1.16, and 0.86 kg/m3 with CM1DIS and
1.35, 1.04, and 0.75 kg/m3 with TDIS whereas with level
slope 2% when using CM2DIS were 1.76, 1.29,
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
175
175
Figure 19. The relationship between different lateral lengths 40, 60; 80 m and both of predicted and measured
head loss when slope 2% with closed circuits TDIS method.
Table 8. Energy saving of closed circuit modified methods had been calculated by comparing with TDIS.
Energy saving (%) of irrigation method
CM2DIS CM1DIS
Field slope (%)
40 60 80 40 60 80
0 32.27 33.21 34.37 30.84 28.96 27.45
2 31.57 33.14 34.25 30.15 28.98 27.53
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
176
Table 9. Effect of closed circuits drip irrigation methods on WUE and EUE when slope level 0%.
Irrigation
methods
Lateral
Lengths m
Applied
water m3/ha Yield kg/haWUE
(kg/m3)
Water
Demand (m3)
Actual
Energy (kwh)
Water
Energy (kwh) EUE %
40 7725.16 12885.271.67 9879.73 255.74 199.97 78.19
60 10338.91 12235.621.18 13583.81 322.01 245.09 76.11
CM2DIS
80 13757.42 12023.180.87 18686.05 366.59 269.90 73.62
40 7638.29 12623.691.65 9973.74 250.02 191.48 76.58
60 10382.71 12015.511.16 14509.10 328.13 234.81 71.56 CM1DIS
80 13782.14 11871.72 0.86 20693.90 388.50 258.74 66.60
40 8932.25 12029.281.35 16865.39 407.16 215.64 52.96
60 10652.88 11034.12 1.04 20954.56 444.78 226.12 50.84 TDIS
80 15212.70 11429.77 0.75 31484.54 514.73 248.71 48.32
Table 10. Effect of closed circuits drip irrigation methods on WUE and EUE when slope level 2%.
Irrigation
methods Lateral
Lengths m Applied water
m3/ha Yield kg/haWUE
(kg/m3) Water Demand
(m3) Actual Energy
(kwh) Water Energy
(kwh) EUE %
40 7488.73 13152.711.76 9558.78 250.04 195.89 78.34
60 9823.52 12641.231.29 12872.84 305.86 233.41 76.31
CM2DIS
80 14893.68 12551.340.84 20172.39 390.26 288.13 73.83
40 7515.22 13291.251.77 9791.56 248.12 190.44 76.75
60 9664.75 12538.781.30 13451.66 311.55 223.84 71.85
CM1DIS
80 13123.36 11423.160.87 19591.78 371.02 248.52 66.98
40 8897.93 12512.871.41 16597.52 401.60 215.30 53.61
60 10322.34 11521.871.12 20230.36 431.07 219.95 51.02
TDIS
80 14985.81 11318.130.76 30869.30 511.40 248.27 48.55
and 0.84 kg/m3 compared to 1.77, 1.30, and 0.87 kg/m3
with CM1DIS and 1.41, 1.12, and 0.76 kg/m3 (for lateral
lengths 40, 60, and 80 meters respectively).
Percentage of water saving varied widely within indi-
vidual lateral lengths and between circuit types relative
to TDIS. Under slope 0% level CM2DIS water saving
percent values were 19.26, 12.48, and 14.03%; with
CM1DIS they were 18.51, 10.50, and 12.78%; and under
slope level 2% with CM2DIS they were 19.93, 13.26,
and 10.38% and CM1DIS were 20.49, 13.96, and 13.23
% (for lateral lengths 40, 60, 80 meters respectively).
REFERENCES
[1] International Energy Annual (2003) (EIA), Projection,
System for the Analysis of Global Energy Markets 2006
(EIA).
[2] Pimentel, D. and Giampietro, M. (1994) Food, Land,
Population and the U.S. Economy. Carrying Capacity
Network. http://www.dieoff.com/page55.htm
[3] Keller, J. (2002) Evolution of drip/microirrigation: Tradi-
tional and non-traditional uses. Paper Presented as Key-
note Address at the International Meeting on Advances in
Drip/Micro Irrigation, 2 to 5 December 2002, Puerto de
la Cruz, Tenerife.
[4] Reyes, M.R. (2007) Agroforestry and sustainable vegeta-
ble production in Southeast Asian watersheds. Annual
Report, SANREM-CRSP, North Carolina A&T State
University.
[5] Capra, A. and Scicolone, B. (1998) Water quality and
distribution uniformity in drip/trickle irrigation systems.
Journal of Agriculture Engineering Research, 70, 355-
365.
[6] FAO (1992) Small-Scale pimped irrigation; energy and
cost. Kay, M., Silsoe Collage, U.K. and Hatcho, N., FAO
land and Water Development Division, pp. 5-40.
[7] Mizyed, N. and Kruse, E.G. (1989) Emitter discharge
evaluation of subsurface trickle irrigation systems.
Transactions of the ASAE, 32, 1223-1228.
[8] Kirnak, H., Dogan, E., Demir, S. and Yalcin, S. (2004)
Determination of hydraulic performance of trickle irriga-
tion emitters used in irrigation system in the Harran Plain.
H. A.-G. Mansour et al. / Agricultural Sciences 1 (2010) 154-177
Copyright © 2010 SciRes. Openly accessible at http://www.scirp.org/journal/AS/
177
177
Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 28, 223-
230.
[9] ASAE Standards (2003) EP405.1 FEB03. Design and
installation of microirrigation systems. ASAE, St. Joseph.
[10] Wu, I.P. and Gitlin, H.M. (1979) Hydraulics and uniform
for drip irrigation. Journal of the Irrigation and Drain-
age Division, ASCE, 99(IR3), 157-168.
[11] Camp, C.R., Sadler, E.J. and Busscher, W.J. (1997) A
comparison of uniformity measure for drip irrigation
systems. Transactions of the ASAE, 40, 1013-1020.
[12] Lamm, F.R., Trooien, T.P., Clark, G.A., Stone, L.R., Alam,
M., Rogers, D.H. and chlgel, A.J. (2002) Using beef la-
goon effluent with SDI. In: Proceedings of Irrigation
Association in International Irrigation Technical Con-
ference, 24-26 October 2002, New Orleans, Available
from Irrigation Association, Falls Church, Virginia, p. 8.
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/sdi/Reports/2002/MWIAPaper.
pdf
[13] Nakayama, F.S. and Bucks, D.A. (1981) Emitter clog-
ging effects on trickle irrigation uniformity. Transactions
on ASAE, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 77-80.
[14] Talozi, S.A. and Hills, D.J. (2001) Simulating emitter
clogging in a microirrigation subunit. Transactions on
ASAE, Vol. 44, No. 6, pp. 1503-1509.
[15] Berkowitz, S.J. (2001) Hydraulic performance of sub-
surface wastewater drip systems. In: On-Site Wastewater
Treatment: Proceedings of 9th International Symposium
on Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems,
ASAE, St. Joseph, 583-592.
[16] Warrick, A.W. and Yitayew, M. (1988) Trickle lateral
hydraulics. I: Analytical solution. Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering, ASCE, 114(2), 281-288.
[17] Hathoot, H.M., Al-Amoud, A.I. and Mohammed, F.S.
(1991) Analysis of a pipe with uniform lateral flow. Al-
exandria Engineering Journal, Alexandria, 30(1), C49-
C54.
[18] Hathoot, H.M., Al-Amoud, A.I. and Mohammed, F.S.
(1993) Analysis and design of trickle irrigation laterals.
Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, 119(5),
756-767.
[19] Watters, G.Z. and Keller, J. (1978) Trickle irrigation tub-
ing hydraulics. ASAE Technical, St. Joseph.
[20] Gee, G.W. and Bauder, J.W. (1986) Particle size analysis.
Methods of soil analysis. Part 1. Agron. 2nd Edition,
ASA and SSSA, Madison, 383-412.
[21] Jackson, M.L. (1967) Soil chemical analysis. Prentice
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs.