Psychology
2012. Vol.3, No.8, 621-625
Published Online August 2012 in SciRes (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/psych) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2012.38095
Perceived Similarities and Satisfaction among Friends of the
Same and Different Ethnicity and Sex at Workplace
Intan H. M. Hashim1, Norzarina Mohd-Zaharim1, Siamak Khodarahimi2
1School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
2Eghlid Branch, Islamic Azad University, Eghlid, Iran
Received April 18th, 2012; revised May 20th, 2012; accepted June 22nd, 2012
This study examined perceived similarities and satisfaction among friends who interacted at workplace.
Respondents were 200 working adults in Malaysia. They were asked to identify the number of friends of
the same and different ethnicity and sex at their workplace and then rate their satisfaction with these
friendships. They were also asked to rate similarities with friends across nine domains (physical appear-
ance, interest, life style, working style, thinking style, personality, values, general attitude, and intellectual
ability). There were significant differences across domains and across categories of friends. More simi-
larities were reported for working style and among friends of the same ethnicity. Lowest similarities were
reported for physical appearance and among friends of different ethnicity. Differences in relationship sat-
isfaction were rather minimal, whereas the highest satisfaction was with friends of the same ethnicity.
Perception of similarities was associated with higher relationship satisfaction, with the strongest effect in
the category of friends of the same ethnicity. Relationship satisfaction across all categories was negatively
correlated with stress.
Keywords: Friendship; Similarities; Ethnicity; Relationship Satisfaction; Stress
Introduction
It has been well-established that similarities lead to attraction
and formation of friendships. People are generally more at-
tracted to those who are similar to them (Jussim & Osgood,
1989; Rubin, 1973). People who share well-established rela-
tionships such as couples, friends, coworkers and members of
informal organizations also tend to be more similar to each
other than other randomly selected members of the same popu-
lation (Goel, Manson, & Watts, 2010; Kossinets & Watts, 2009;
Lasersfeld & Merton, 1954).
Similarities among friends may come from three different
sources; interpersonal influence, selective attraction and effects
of shared environment (Jussim & Osgood, 1989). In interper-
sonal influence, a person’s attitudes, values or behavior can be
directly affected by another person (Jussim & Osgood, 1989).
In this regard, a person may develop specific values that are
similar (or perceived to be similar) to those of his or her
friend’s. In selective attraction, the similarity is assumed to
exist prior to the establishment of the friendship and in fact is
the factor that leads to the formation of that particular friend-
ship. In intra-ethnic friendship, the same ethnicity becomes the
basis of that relationship, illustrating the selective attraction
process. Lastly, when two individuals share a similar environ-
ment, they may share the same experience that eventually leads
to the same attitudes and values. In this effect, interpersonal
influence is not what is leading to the same attitudes or values
but rather the external effect of the environment that is more
important.
According to attraction-similarity hypothesis, aspects of a
relationship are what leading to perception of similarities
(Morry, 2005). Based on this assumption, perceptions of simi-
larity will be intensified during the course of relationships. This
is particularly true for on-going relationships when a person is
motivated to perceive more similarities with friends or signifi-
cant others as part of their self or relationship-serving bias
(Morry, 2005). In this study however, we are not concerned
with the sources of similarities. Neither are we interested in
whether attraction influences the perception of similarities.
Instead, we are more interested to understand the dynamic in-
teractions between similarity in sex and ethnic background.
In their research, Jussim and Osgood (1989) differentiated
between objective and subjective interpersonal influence. They
also suggested that when making an assessment on attitudes of
a friend, there may be inaccuracies. However, subjective as-
sessment of similarities remains a more powerful predictor of
relationship satisfaction compared to more objective ratings.
Similarly, Goel, Mason, and Watts (2010) found friends dis-
agree more than they think and suggested a gap between real
and perceived agreement. Both studies highlight that while
subjective assessment is not always accurate, it is still impor-
tant and powerful. The present study relies mostly on subjective
perception of similarities.
Most studies on similarities also tend to focus on only one
aspect of similarity at a time such as personality (Selfhout,
Denissen, Branje & Meeus, 2009) or attitudes (Goel et al.,
2010). In one rare study that simultaneously looked at similari-
ties among friends across activity preference and attitude,
Werner & Parmele (1979) found that activity preference simi-
larity was substantially greater than attitudinal similarity. This
study highlights the important of considering perception of
similarities across different domains in the attempt to under-
stand the more salient domains that can predict friendship’s
quality and satisfaction. Indeed as suggested by Duck (1973),
even when examining a single domain similarity e.g. personal-

I. H. M. HASHIM ET AL.
ity, it is still important to be very precise about specific aspects
of personality that are similar that can predict friendship choice
at certain point of friendship development. The present study
looked simultaneously at similarities across nine different do-
mains including physical appearance, interest, life style, work-
ing style, thinking style, personality, values, general attitude
and intellectual ability.
Researchers elsewhere have looked at similarities in friend-
ship across different domains. For instance, Selfhout, Branje,
ter Bogt and Meeus (2007) examined similarity in music pref-
erence and how it can contribute to friendship formation and
discontinuation among adolescents. On the other hand, Eiser,
Gammage, Brooks and Kirby (2009) have investigated similar-
ity in smoking habits among best friends. These studies have
selected various domains or aspects of similarity based on the
interest and the focus of their study. Similarly, we selected
these 9 domains based on the focus of this study which is simi-
larity in friendship at work place. It is likely that in the context
of friendship within work place, these domains play important
but differential roles in determining friendship choice and
maintenance. For instance similarity in working style may be
more salient in determining the quality of friendships compared
to similarity in physical appearance. In addition, we also compare
the perceptions of similarities among people of the same and
different ethnicity and sex. Are the perceptions of similarity
relatively the same for friendships among people with the same sex
and ethnicity and among people of different sex and ethnicity?
Workplace friendship has increasingly received more atten-
tion from researchers (Mao, 2006; Miller, Rutherford, & Ko-
lodinsky, 2008; Yen, Chen, & Yen, 2009). Most work places
provide ideal opportunities for people with different back-
grounds to interact with each other and form friendships. This
is especially true in the multiethnic setting of Malaysia. This
study explored how people of different ethnicity and sex per-
ceive similarities and rate satisfaction in their friendships.
The Present Study
There are 4 major objectives of the study. One is to examine
respondents’ perception of similarities with friends of similar
and different ethnicity and sex across nine domains. The other
is to examine respondents’ relationship satisfaction with friends
of similar and different ethnicity and sex. The third objective is
to explore how respondents’ perception of similarities with
friends of similar and different ethnicity and sex influence rela-
tionship satisfaction. Lastly, this study also examines how re-
spondent’s relationship satisfaction with friends of similar and
different ethnicity and sex influences perception of stress at
work place.
Method
Participants
Participants were 200 working adults who were studying
part-time in a distance learning program at a university in Ma-
laysia. Sixty-six were males while 134 were females. They
ranged in age from 22 to 53 (M = 32.3; SD = 6.8). Majority are
married (68.2%). By ethnicity, Malays (70.6%) formed a ma-
jority, followed by Indians (15.4%), Chinese (6%) and others
(8%). All of the respondents were working at the time of data
collection with a large proportion working as teachers (51.2%).
Other occupations included government officers and techni-
cal/clerical positions. Average years of working is 8.9 (SD =
5.68) with income ranging from RM600 to RM6500 (M =
RM2405, SD = RM866).
Procedure
Participants were recruited while on-campus as part of their
course requirement. They were approached and asked to take
part in the study. Upon agreement, they answered and returned
a set of questionnaires immediately. They were paid some to-
ken money for participating.
Measures
General assessment of friendships at the workplace. In this
section respondents responded to three items related to friend-
ships at the workplace: 1) number of people considered friends
at the workplace; 2) perception of similarity with these friends
across 9 domains (physical appearance, interest, life style,
working style, thinking style, personality, values, general atti-
tude, and intellectual ability); and 3) satisfaction with these
friendships. For similarities across different domains in general
friends, respondents gave either a “yes” (indicating there are
similarities between them and their friends across that particular
domain) or a “no” (indicating no similarities) answer to each
domain.
Assessment of intra-ethnic friendships at the workplace. Re-
spondents responded to three items as described above, but in
this section the items were particularly related to friendships
with people of the same ethnicity. So, again, respondents indi-
cated: 1) the number of people of the same ethnicity consid-
ered friends at the workplace; 2) their perception of similarity
with these friends across 9 domains (physical appearance, in-
terest, life style, working style, thinking style, personality, val-
ues, general attitude, and intellectual ability); and 3) their sat-
isfaction with these friendships. As in general friends, respon-
dents gave either a “yes” (indicating there were similarities
between them and their friends across that particular domain) or
a “no” answer (indicating no similarities) to each domain.
Assessment of inter-ethnic friendships at the workplace. Re-
spondents responded to three items as described above, but in
this section the items were particularly related to friendships
with people of different ethnicity. So, again, respondents indi-
cated: 1) the number of people of different ethnicity consid-
ered friends at the workplace; 2) their perception of similarity
with these friends across 9 domains (physical appearance, in-
terest, life style, working style, thinking style, personality, val-
ues, general attitude, and intellectual ability); and 3) their sat-
isfaction with these friendships. Again “yes” indicates there
were similarities and “no” indicates no similarities.
Assessment of intra-sex friendships at the workplace. Re-
spondents responded to three items as described above, but in
this section the items were particularly related to friendships
with people of the same sex. So, again, respondents indicated: 1)
the number of people of the same sex considered friends at the
workplace; 2) their perception of similarity with these friends
across 9 domains (physical appearance, interest, life style,
working style, thinking style, personality, values, general atti-
tude, and intellectual ability); and 3) their satisfaction with
these friendships. Again “yes” indicates there were similarities
and “no” indicates no similarities.
Assessment of inter-sex friendships at the workplace. Re-
622

I. H. M. HASHIM ET AL.
spondents responded to three items as described above, but in
this section the items were particularly related to friendships
with people of different sex. So, again, respondents indicated: 1)
the number of people of different sex considered friends at the
workplace; 2) their perception of similarity with these friends
across 9 domains (physical appearance (PA), general interest
(GA), life style (LS), working style (WS), thinking style (TS),
personality (P), values (V), general attitude (GA), and intellect-
tual ability(IA)); and 3) their satisfaction with these friendships.
Again “yes” indicates there were similarities and ‘no’ indicates
no similarities.
Workplace Stress Scale (WSS; De Mello Alves et al., 2004).
The WSS is a short version of Karasek’s 49-item questionnaire.
It is based on Karasek’s conceptual model that involves aspects
of stress in the workplace. The WSS includes three factors:
demand (5 items, e.g., “Do you have to work very fast?”), con-
trol (6 items, e.g., “Do you have the possibility of learning new
things through your work?”), and support (5 items, e.g., “There
is a calm and pleasant atmosphere where I work”). Respondents
respond to all items using a scale ranging from 1 (strongly
agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Reliability by Cronbach’s alpha
for all domains ranged from .63 to .86 (De Mello Alves et al.,
2004). In the present study the responses were on a scale of 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Results
Table 1 and 2 presented frequencies and mean of perceived
similarities across domains and categories of friends. To test the
significance of these differences, two sets of ANOVA were
carried out; one across different types of friends and the other
across different types of domains. From the first set of analysis,
there was a significant effect of domains in similarities between
all friends at work in general, F(8.1592) = 46.711, p < .005,
partial η² = .190. There was a significant linear trend of the
means for the factors, F(1.199) = 32.163, p < .005, partial η²
= .139. Participants reported highest similarities in working
style with general category of friends, followed by general attitude
and thinking style. Lowest similarities were reported for physi-
cal appearance.
There was also a significant effect of domains in similarities
between friends of the same ethnicity at work, F(8.1560) =
30.998, p < .005, partial η² = .137. There was a significant lin-
ear trend of the means for the factors, F(1.195) = 16.088, p
< .005, partial η² = .076. Similar to general category of friends,
participants reported highest similarities in working style, fol-
lowed by general attitude and thinking style with intra-ethnic
friends. Lowest similarities were reported for physical appearance.
Again there was a significant effect of domains in similarities
between friends of different ethnicity at work, F(8.1424) =
24.813, p < .005, partial η² = .122. There was a significant lin-
ear trend of the means for the factors, F(1.178) = 21.580, p
< .005, partial η² = .108. Participants reported highest similari-
ties in working style, followed by thinking style and general
attitude. Lowest similarities were reported for physical appearance.
There was also a significant effect of domains in similarities
between friends of the same sex at work, F(8.1576) = 32.315, p
< .005, partial η² = .141. There was a significant linear trend of
the means for the factors, F(1.197) = 27.221, p < .005, partial
η² = .121. Participants reported highest similarities in working
style, followed by thinking style and general attitude. Lowest
similarities were reported for physical appearance.
Finally, there was a significant effect of domains in similari-
ties between friends of different sex at work, F(8.1504) =
25.733, p < .005, partial η² = .120. There was a significant lin-
ear trend of the means for the factors, F(1.188) = 7.361, p < .05,
partial η² = .108. Participants reported highest similarities in
working style, followed by thinking style and general attitude.
Lowest similarities were reported for physical appearance.
The second set of analysis tested the difference across dif-
ferent domains. There was no significant effect of similarities in
physical appearance between different categories of friends,
F(4.692) = 1.391, p = .235, partial η² = .008. There was no
significant linear trend of the means for the factor, F(1.173)
= .210, p = .648, partial η² = .001.
Table 1.
Percentages of respondents who perceived similarities with their friends across nine domains.
Friends PA GA LS WS TS P V GA IA
All 5 40.3 32.2 65.7 55.3 25.4 27.4 27.4 61.2
Same ethnicity 3.5 37.3 31.3 54.2 50.1 24.9 30.3 30.3 49.3
Different 3 21.4 21.4 48.3. 37.8 16.9 19.4 19.4 33.8
ethnicity
Same sex 3.5 34.8 27.9 58.2 46.8 22.4 30.8 30.8 48.3
Different sex 4.5 26.4 24.4 52.7 40.8 17.9 23.9 23.9 39.3
Table 2
Means of perceived similarities across domains and categories of friends.
Friends PA GA LS WS TS P V GA IA
M (SD)
All .046 (.21) .393 (.48) .316 (.50) .668 (.47) .549 (.49) .258 (.44) .247 (.43) .609 (.48) .478 (48)
Same ethnicity .025 (.15) .364 (.48) .298 (.45) .546 (.49) .497 (.50) .241 (.43) .287 (.45) .500 (.50) .258 (.43)
Different ethnicity .034 (.18) .248 (.43) .241 (.43) .529 (.50) .439 (.49) .183 (.38) .224 (.42) .379 (.48) .281 (.45)
Same sex .023 (.15) .352 (.49) .258 (.44) .598 (.49) .485 (.50) .218 (.41) .304 (.46) .477 (.50) .287 (.45)
Different sex .057 (.29) .277 (.46) .258 (.43) .552 (.49) .416 (.49) .189 (.39) .247 (.43) .402 (.49) .189 (.39)

I. H. M. HASHIM ET AL.
There was a significant effect of similarities in general inter-
est between different categories of friends, F(4.688) = 5.541, p
< .005, partial η² = .031. There was a significant linear trend of
the means for the factor, F(1.172) = 6.648, p < .05, partial η²
= .037. Participants reported lowest similarity in general inter-
est with friends of different ethnicity, followed by friends of
different sex. Similarities in general interest were highest with
friends of the same ethnicity.
There was no significant effect of similarities in life style
between different categories of friends, F(4.692) = 1.317, p
= .262, partial η² = .008. There was no significant linear trend
of the means for the factor, F(1.173) = 2.801, p = .096, partial
η² = .016.
There was a significant effect of similarities in working style
between different categories of friends, F(4.684) = 4.209, p
< .05, partial η² = .024. There was a significant linear trend of
the means for the factor, F(1.171) = 4.519, p < .05, partial η²
= .026. Participants reported lowest similarity in working style
with friends of different ethnicity, followed by friends of dif-
ferent sex. Similarities in working style were highest with
friends of the same ethnicity.
There was a significant effect of similarities in thinking style
between different categories of friends, F(4.688) = 3.565, p
< .05, partial η² = .049. There was a significant linear trend of
the means for the factor, F(1.172) = 8.924, p < .005, partial η²
= .049. Participants reported lowest similarity in thinking style
with friends of different ethnicity, followed by friends of dif-
ferent sex. Similarities in thinking style were highest with
friends of the same ethnicity.
There was no significant effect of similarities in personality
between different categories of friends, F(4.692) = 1.931, p
= .104, partial η² = .011. There was no significant linear trend
of the means for the factor, F(1.173) = 3.584, p = .060, partial
η² = .020.
There was no significant effect of similarities in values be-
tween different categories of friends, F(4.692) = 1.831, p = .111,
partial η² = .010. There was no significant linear trend of the
means for the factor, F(1.173) = .036, p = .849, partial η²
= .000.
There was a significant effect of similarities in general atti-
tude between different categories of friends, F(4.692) = 10.215,
p < .005, partial η² = .056. There was a significant linear trend
of the means for the factor, F(1.173) = 19.613, p < .005, partial
η² = .102. Participants reported lowest similarity in general
attitude with friends of different ethnicity, followed by friends
of different sex. Similarities in general attitude were highest
with friends of the same ethnicity.
There was a significant effect of similarities in intellectual
ability between different categories of friends, F(4.692) = 5.587,
p < .005, partial η² = .0531. There was a significant linear trend
of the means for the factor, F(1.173) = 11.646, p < .005, partial
η² = .063. Participants reported lowest similarity in intellectual
ability with friends of different sex, followed by friends of the
same ethnicity. Similarities in intellectual ability were highest
with friends of the same gender.
ANOVA was also carried to test the difference level of satis-
faction among different categories of friendship. There was a
significant effect of relationship satisfaction between different
categories of friends, F(4.684) = 9.375, p < .005, partial η²
= .052. There was a significant linear trend of the means for the
factor, F(1.171) = 20.774, p < .005, partial η² = .108. From
Table 3, participants reported lowest satisfaction with friends
of different sex, followed by friends of different ethnicity. Sat-
isfaction was highest with friends of the same ethnicity.
Finally correlation analyses were carried between perception
of similarities and relationship satisfaction and stress across
different categories of friend. There were significant correla-
tions between perception of similarities with friends of different
categories and relationship satisfaction (see Table 4). However,
the correlation between perception of similarities with friends
of different sex and relationship satisfaction with those friends
was not significant, p > .05. Finally, there were significant cor-
relations between relationship satisfaction with friends all dif-
ferent categories and stress at work (see Table 5).
Discussion
Participants in the study perceived and reported more simi-
larities with friends in working style and intellectual ability
more than in other domains. They perceived lowest similarities
in physical appearance. This suggests that even though people
are generally attracted to those who are similar to them, perhaps
at least in workplace environment, similarities in some domains
the least important in friendship formation and maintenance at
the workplace but similarities in working style and intellectual
ability are more important.
Table 3.
Means of relationship satisfaction with friends of the same and different
ethnicity and sex.
Category of friends M (SD)
All 4.15 (.53)
Same ethnicity 4.16 (.54)
Different ethnicity 4.02(.59)
Same sex 4.04(.58)
Different sex 3.98(.62)
Table 4.
Correlations between perceptions of similarities with friends of the
same and different ethnicity and sex and relationship satisfaction with
the friendships.
Category of friends n = 200
All .15*
Same ethnicity .23**
Different ethnicity .15*
Same sex .14*
Different sex .04
Note: *Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is signifi-
cant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
Table 5.
Correlations between relationship satisfaction with friends of the same
and different ethnicity and sex and stress.
Category of friends n = 200
All –.27**
Same ethnicity –.26**
Different ethnicity –.30**
Same sex –.33**
Different sex –.21**
Note: *Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is signifi-
cant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
624

I. H. M. HASHIM ET AL.
Participants in the study also perceived more similarities
with friends of the same ethnicity compared to friends with
different ethnicity. Similarly, they perceived more similarities
with friends of the same sex compared to friends of different
sex. They also perceived more similarities with friends of the
same ethnicity than friends of the same sex. Differences in
relationship satisfaction were rather minimal, with highest sat-
isfaction among friends of the same ethnicity. Perception of
similarities was associated with higher relationship satisfaction,
with the strongest effect among friends of the same ethnicity.
These findings indicate the centrality of ethnicity in friendships
in multiethnic Malaysia. As suggested by the findings on
shared similarities and relationship satisfaction, Malaysians
prefer friends of the same ethnicity.
Relationship satisfaction for all categories of friends had sig-
nificant negative correlations with stress. Thus, Malaysians
facing work stress might be buffered by the quality of friend-
ships at the workplace, regardless of the ethnicity and sex of
their friends.
These findings have several implications. Friendships at
work place should be encouraged as it can have protective ele-
ment against stress. One way to encourage these friendships is
by allowing people to work together that will provide opportu-
nity for them to discover their potential similarity, especially in
terms of working style and intellectual capacity. Although this
method can backfire in cases when people found themselves to
be different, but more opportunity to work together may in-
crease attraction and perception of similarity. Although people
still prefer to develop friendships with those of similar ethnicity,
this study also highlights the important of similar sex friend-
ships. Similar sex friendships may cut across ethnicity and al-
low people of different ethnicity but similar sex to develop and
maintain meaningful and satisfying relationships that in turn
can improve inter-ethnic relationships in a multi-cultural soci-
ety such as Malaysia.
This study is somewhat limited in a number of ways. One is
the small sample with small ethnic variations that can limit the
application of the findings. Future studies may include a larger
population focusing on work place that represents all ethnic
groups in Malaysia better. In this study, assessment of similari-
ties for each domain relied on a single item measure. Future
studies may use more than one item to measure similarities
across different domains.
As a conclusion, this study highlights the important of un-
derstanding the complicated process underlying perceptions of
similarities among friends and the need for more refined theo-
ries on friendships, as occurred within work place situations.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by Research University Grants of
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia.
REFERENCES
Aboud, F. E. (2003). The formation of in-group favoritism and
out-group prejudice in young children: Are there distinct attitudes?
Development Psychology, 3 9, 48-60.
doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.48
Bellmore, A. D., Nishina, A., Witkow, M. R., Graham, S., & Juvonen, J.
(2007). The influence of classroom ethnic composition on same—
And other—Ethnicity peer nominations in middle school. Social
Development, 16, 720-740. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00404.x
Aminudin, M. Y., Arifin, Z., Khaidzir, I., Fatimah W. H., Suzana, M.
H., Siti, W. S., & Yuzana, M. Y. (2006). Pemetaan sikap etnik
mengikut zon-zon di Malaysia. Prosiding Seminar Psikologi Pem-
bangunan Komuniti ISM-UKM. Kuala Lumpur: Institut Sosial
Malaysia.
Breckler, S. J., Olson, J., & Wiggins, E. (2006). Social psychology alive.
Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Aversive racism and selection
decisions; 1989-1999. Psychological Science, 11, 315-319.
doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00262
Duck, S. W. (1973). Personality similarity and friendship choice: Simi-
larity of what, when? Journal of Personality, 41, 543-558.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1973.tb00110.x
Eiser, J. R., Morgan, M., Gammage, P., Brooks, N., & Kirby, R. (2009).
Adolescent health behaviour and similarity-attraction: Friends share
smoking habits (really), but much else besides. The British Journal
of Social Psychology, 30, 339-348.
doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1991.tb00950.x
Emerson, M. O., Kimbro, R. T., & Yancey, G. (2002). Contact theory
extended: The effects of prior racial contact. Social Science Quar-
terly, 83, 745-761. doi:10.1111/1540-6237.00112
Feddes, A. R., Noack, P., & Rutland, A. (2009). Direct and extended
friendship effects on minority and majority children’s interethnic at-
titudes: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 80, 377-390.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01266.x
Goel, S., Mason, W., & Watts, D. J. (2010). Real and perceived attitude
agreement in social networks. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 99, 611-621. doi:10.1037/a0020697
Hashim, I. H. M. (2006). Who provides what: A study on interpersonal
relationships of university students. Prosiding Seminar Psikologi
Pembangunan Komuniti ISM-UKM. Kuala Lumpur: Institut Sosial
Malaysia.
Hashim, I. H. M. (2007). The development of friendships and its rela-
tionship with loneliness. 19th Asia-Pacific Social Work Conference,
Penang, 4-6 September 2007.
Hashim, I. H. M. (2007). Stress, coping and social supports in the ado-
lescent years. Kajian Malaysia, 25, 97-115.
Hashim, I. H. M. (2005). The development of social network at work-
place for new teachers. Kajian Malaysia, 23, 35-61.
Jussim. L., & Osgood, D. W. (1989). Influence of similarity among
friends: An integrative model applied to incarcerated adolescents.
Social Psychology Quar t e r l y, 52, 98-112. doi:10.2307/2786910
Pettygrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Journal of Person-
ality and Social Psychology, 90, 751-783.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
Roberts, R., Phinney, J., Masse, L., Chen, Y., Roberts, C., & Romero,
A. (1999). The structure of ethnic identity in young adolescents from
diverse ethnocultural groups. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19,
301-302. doi:10.1177/0272431699019003001
Rubin, Z. (1973). Liking and loving. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Selfhout, M., Denissen, J., Branje, S., & Meeus, W. (2009). In the eye
of beholder: Perceived, actual and peer-rate similarity in personality,
communication, and friendship intensity during the acquaintanceship
process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1152-
1165. doi:10.1037/a0014468
Werner, C., & Parmele, P. (1979). Similarity of activity preference
among friends: Those who play together, stay together. Social Psy-
chology Quarterly, 42, 62-66. doi:10.2307/3033874
Verkutyen, M. (2002). Ethnic attitudes among minority and majority
children: The role of ethnic identification, peer group victimization,
and parents. Social Development, 11, 558-570.
doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00215