Creative Education
2012. Vol.3, No.3, 304-308
Published Online June 2012 in SciRes (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ce) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2012.33048
Copyright © 2012 SciRes.
304
The Effects of Animation Technique on the 7th Grade
Science and Technology Course
Gokhan Aksoy
Ministry of National Education, IMKB Primary School, Erzurum, Turkey
Email: gokhanaksoy44@hotmail.com
Received May 5th, 2012; revised June 1st, 2012; accepted June 15th, 2012
The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of animation technique on academic achievement of
students in the “Human and Environment” unit lectured as part of the Science and Technology course of
the seventh grade in primary education. The sample of the study consists of 58 students attending to the
7th grade of Erzurum MEB Yildizkent IMKB primary school under two different classes during the 2011-
2012 academic year. While the lectures in the class designated as the animation group were given with
animation technique, in the class designated as the control group Powerpoint presentations was utilized
along with the traditional teaching methods. According to the findings, it was determined that animation
technique is more effective than traditional teaching methods in terms of enhancing students’ achievement.
It was also determined in the study that, the Powerpoint presentations used together with the traditional
teaching methods provided to the control group significantly help the students to increase their academic
achievement.
Keywords: Human and Environment; Animation Technique; Simulation; Science and Technology;
Academic Achievement
Introduction
Animation Technique in Education
Learning and teaching activities in the education and training
process have an important role in presenting permanent infor-
mation to students. In order to enable students to learn better,
their advanced mental process skills have to be developed. In
other words, the skills needed in order to create solution for
problems and learn by comprehension instead of memorizing
have to be given to students. Therefore an effective science
education has to be provided in school. Accordingly, in science
education teaching the skills for reaching information is much
more important to providing the available information to stu-
dents (Black, 2005; Karaçöp, 2010; Kim, Yoon, Whang, Tver-
sky, & Morrison, 2007; Wu & Shah, 2004). In this context,
there are various methods used in science education in order to
enable the topics to be better comprehended. Both researchers
and educational practitioners have believed that animation
would facilitate learning. Because, animations are more realis-
tic for showing change; they can demonstrate in action the sys-
tems to be taught and animations can show change in time, they
are thought to be natural and effective for conveying change in
time (Kim, Yoon, Whang, Tversky, & Morrison 2007; Nielsen
1995). In technology-aided education, visual materials such as
animations, animated pictures and multimedia software have a
great importance (Aldağ & Sezgin, 2002; Hall, 2012; Mayer &
Moreno, 2002). Use of animations has a significant effect in
teaching the abstract topics of science and technology courses.
Use of animations together with teaching methods and tech-
niques and having the students actively participate to the proc-
ess ensure the provision of an effective and efficient education.
The developments experienced in information technologies
brought the use of computer technologies in the learning-
teaching environments into prominence. Developments in com-
puter technologies make it possible for the educators to teach
by using graphics, videos, simulations and animations together
with written texts. Scientific thinking methods should be also
presented in animations (Doymuş, Şimşek, & Karaçöp, 2009; Ka-
raçöp, 2010).
Animations are the most known kind of pictorial forms.
Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of pictures on
computer screen. Animations have three characteristics. These
are the pictures, display of certain movements and simulation
(Weiss, Knowlton, & Morrison, 2002). Also salience and brisk-
ness have an important place in animations. Animations should
correspond to the context of the topics, otherwise animations
may become distracting and the intended objectives cannot be
achieved with the use of animations. Briskness in animations
reifies comprehension of abstract topics (Ploetzner, Lippitsch,
Galmbacher, Heuer, & Scherrer, 2009; Sweller, 2005; Tezcan
& Yılmaz, 2003; Vermaat, Kramers-Pals, & Schank, 2004).
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of ani-
mation technique and the traditional teaching methods on the
academic achievement of students receiving “human and envi-
ronment” unit of the 7th grade science and technology course.
Model
Within the scope of primary school 7th grade science and
technology lesson’s “human and environment” unit, in this
study, control group design of pretest—posttest was predicated
to examine the results of two different teaching techniques on
students’ academic achievements (McMillan & Schumacher,
G. AKSOY
2006).
Participants
Sample of the study consist of 58 students of two classes of a
primary school during the academic year of 2011-2012. One of
the classes was assigned as the Animation Group (AG) (n = 28),
another one was assigned as the Control Group (CG) (n = 30).
The study was continued in all groups for three weeks.
Data Collection Tools
Academic Achievement Test (AAT)
Academic Achievement Test was designed taking into con-
sideration the “human and environment” unit in the study and
to be able to measure student attainments by making use of
primary school 7th grade science and technology program.
AAT was designed as 25 questions multiple choice test follow-
ing the preparation of questions specifications table which was
prepared according to subject distribution and questions and
examined and corrected by 3 academics who are leading ex-
perts on the science education and 3 science and technology
teachers (teaching at 7th grade). After these adjustments, AAT
was applied on 48 8th grade students from 2 different classes,
who had studied the subject previously and hence, the reliabil-
ity of the test measurements were established. 5 questions in the
AAT which were found to be dysfunctional were removed from
the test. Thus, the AAT was prepared as 20 question test and its
reliability coefficient was determined as 0.66. AAT was applied
both groups as pretest and posttest to determine the change in
the academic achievement level.
The Study
Teaching with Animation Technique
The animations related to the “Human and Environment”
unit were obtained from several websites. Distributions of these
animations and simulations according to subjects in the “Hu-
man and Environment” unit, and the related website addresses
are presented in Table 1. In addition to the animations, scien-
tific game and movie were downloaded from the internet and
utilized in the education of the students. Suitability of the an-
imations to the contexts of the subjects were examined by a
prelector engaged in the area of science education. The re-
searcher provided the students with the basic information con-
cerning the subjects of the “Human and Environment” unit
along with the prepared animations. During the courses un-
comprehended animations were played again and the courses
were completed by making class discussions. Lecturing of the
subjects included in the “Human and Environment” unit was
completed in three weeks. In order to determine the level of
increase in students’ achievements at the end of the study, AAT
posttest was used.
Teaching with the Traditiona l Teaching Methods
In the class designated as the control group, lecturing of the
subjects included in the “Human and Environment” unit was
realized according to the traditional teaching methods. In con-
trol group the lecture was given with the Powerpoint presenta-
tions prepared by the researcher. While the researcher per-
formed the presentation, students listened and took notes. In
Table 1.
Subjects in the “Human and Environment” unit and the related anima-
tions used in these subjects.
Subjects Related animations
Energy transfers URL1
Food chain URL2, URL3, URL4, URL5
Natural disasters URL6, URL7
Ecosystem. URL8, URL9, URL10, URL11, URL12
Population URL13, URL14, URL15, URL16
Global warming URL17, URL18, URL19
Water cycle URL20, URL21
Acid rain URL22, URL23, URL24
Carbon cycle URL25
Ozone hole and ozone depletion URL26, URL27
Greenhouse effects URL28, URL29, URL30, URL31
Food web URL32, URL33
addition to these, while teaching some of the subjects; the stu-
dents were divided into groups of five and asked to present the
subjects as a group. Students continued their studies out of the
class through textbooks and other sources provided by the re-
searcher. During the lectures, students were asked questions at
certain times and feedbacks were made according to their an-
swers. Students were also given homework for studying the
subjects out of the class. At the end of each lesson, the students
were asked to read about the subjects of the next lesson and be
prepared for it. In the control group, lecturing of the subjects
included in the “Human and Environment” unit lasted for three
weeks. Lectures in both animation and control groups were
given by the researcher. In order to determine the level of in-
crease in students’ achievements at the end of the study, AAT
posttest was used.
Findings
In this part, the findings obtained from examining the effects
of the animation technique and the traditional teaching methods
on the academic achievement levels of the students in the “Hu-
man and Environment” unit of the 7th grade science and tech-
nology course are presented.
The Academic Achievement Test (AAT) was implemented
to the students included in both the animation and the control
group individually once before the lectures as pre-test and once
after the lectures as post-test. The data obtained from inde-
pendent t test analysis of the AAT pre-test and AAT post-test
score averages are presented in Table 2.
Examining the p values in Table 2 according to a signifi-
cance level of 0.05 shows that there is no difference between
the animation and control groups in terms of the AAT pre-test
scores obtained (p > 0.05). According to these data it is possible
to assert that the preknowledge on the subjects of the “Human
and Environment” unit of the students in both groups were in
the same level (Animation Group = 55.18; Control Group =
53.17).
Copyright © 2012 SciRes. 305
G. AKSOY
Copyright © 2012 SciRes.
306
On the other hand, examining the p values in Table 2 ac-
cording to a significance level of 0.05 indicates the presence of
a statistically significant difference between the animation and
control groups in terms of the AAT post-test scores obtained (p
< 0.05). Examining the scores obtained from the AAT post-test
implemented to both groups following the completion of the
courses pointed out that a statistically significant difference
between the two groups was established in terms of the stu-
dents’ academic achievement levels on the subjects of the
“Human and Environment” unit (Animation Group = 78.61;
Control Group = 63.17). With this, it was determined that the
animation group was superior to the control group in increasing
their academic achievements.
In order to determine the level with which the groups in-
creased their academic achievement levels by examining the
pre-test and post-test results of each group separately, the data
obtained from the matched group t test analysis of the point
averages obtained by both of the groups from the pre-test and
post-test are presented in Table 3.
With the examination of the AAT pre-test and AAT post-test
point average data presented in Table 3, it was determined that
the animation technique applied to the animation group resulted
in a significant difference in terms of increasing students' aca-
demic achievements concerning the subjects included in the
“Human and Environment” unit. It was also determined from
considering the AAT pre-test and AAT post-test point averages
presented in Table 3 that, also the traditional teaching methods
applied to the control group caused a statistically significant
difference in terms of increasing students’ academic achieve-
ments in the “Human and Environment” unit. However, with
the examination of the p values, it was determined that the ani-
mation group increased its academic achievements in a much
greater level than the control group.
Conclusion
In this part the findings of the study were interpreted and
discussed, and also some suggestions that may set light to the
future studies concerning the techniques and methods used in
this study were made. The teaching techniques, methods and
tests used in the 7th grade “Human and Environment” unit are
presented below.
With the examination of the data obtained from applying the
AAT pre-test to both animation and control groups, it was de-
termined that the achievement levels of both of the groups were
above 53%, and that there was no significant difference in the
preknowledge of the students of the two groups concerning the
subjects of the “Human and Environment” unit (Table 2). It is
believed that the absence of a significant difference between the
preknowledge of the animation and control group was due to
the fact that the students of both groups received the same edu-
cation curriculum in the past. Also, high levels of preknowl-
edge in science and technology courses facilitate teaching,
comprehension of related activities and subjects, and creation
of solutions to the problems that may be experienced. It is also
observed from other studies that the preknowledge of students
that received the same education curriculum are on the same
level (Aksoy & Doymuş, 2011; Doymus, 2007; Doymuş, Şim-
şek, & Karaçöp, 2009).
According to the findings obtained from the statistical analy-
sis of the AAT post-test scores of the two groups, it was deter-
mined that a statistically significant difference was created in
terms of increasing the groups’ academic achievements in the
related subjects, in consequence of the implementation of the
animation technique and the traditional teaching methods in
teaching the subjects included in the “Human and Environ-
ment” unit of the 7th grade science and technology course. The
animation group was found out to be more successful than the
control group in terms of the AAT post-test points (Table 2).
Provision of additional information provided together with the
related animations can be interpreted among the reasons why
the students, on whom the animation technique was imple-
mented, attained higher academic achievement levels than the
students of the control group.
The consideration that utilization of animations in this way
as part of education is effective in teaching scientific facts,
phenomena, experiments and concepts were also set forth in
other studies (Schank & Kozma, 2002). The findings of this
study indicating that animation technique enables higher aca-
demic achievement in comparison to traditional teaching methods
is in line with the results of the previously conducted studies
(Frailich, Kesner, & Hofstein, 2009; Özmen, 2008; Öztürk-
Ürek & Tarhan, 2005; Sanger, Brecheisen, & Hynek, 2001; Ta-
lib, Matthews, & Secombe, 2005; Yang, Andre, & Greenbowe,
Table 2.
Independent sample t test analysis of the point averages scored from AAT pre-test and AAT post-tests values.
Animation group Control group
Tests
X SD X SD
t p
AAT pre-test 55.18 7.99 53.17 7.13 1.01 0.31
AAT post-test 78.61 9.24 63.17 13.98 4.92 0.01
Table 3.
Paired sample t test analysis of the AAT pre-test and AAT post-test point averages of both groups.
AAT pre-test AAT post-test
Groups
X SD X SD
t p
Animation group 55.18 7.99 78.61 9.24 10.29 0.01
Control group 53.17 7.13 63.17 13.98 3.42 0.01
G. AKSOY
2003). The questions asked by the researcher in order to reveal
students’ preknowledge on the subjects, answering the ques-
tions concerning the subjects and the contents of the animations,
class discussions held after the presentation of the animations
and repetition of the uncomprehended subjects, in addition to
the provision of the animations and simulations are among the
other reasons of how the students of the animation group was
more successful than the students of the control group. The
finding that the use animation technique brings along a consid-
erable difference in students’ achievements is in line with the
results of the previously conducted studies (Kelly & Jones,
2007; Rotbain, Marbach-Ad, & Stavy, 2008).
It was determined that, after completion of the teaching ac-
tivities both of the groups increased their academic achieve-
ment levels on the subjects included in the scope of the study in
terms of their AAT pre-test and AAT post-test point averages
(Table 3). The p values provided in the table for the 7th grade
science and technology course, “Human and Environment” unit,
indicate that the educative process were useful at high levels for
both of the groups. The Powerpoint presentations made in rela-
tion with the subject during the implementation of the tradi-
tional teaching methods can be shown as the reason how both
of the groups benefited from the process at such high levels.
The researcher’s utilization of Powerpoint during the course
enabled a planned and successive presentation of the subject,
drawing the students’ attention to the subjects, enhancing stu-
dents’ levels of perception, teaching the lesson more efficiently
and presentation of different information (Hakverdi-Can &
Dana, 2012; Para & Reis, 2009).
The techniques and methods that facilitate teaching the dif-
ficult subjects in science courses are frequently utilized in edu-
cation environments. In this study, animation technique and the
traditional teaching methods supported by PowerPoint presen-
tations were used in order to facilitate teaching and learning of
the subjects included in the “Human and Environment” unit. In
order to obtain more effective and efficient results from the
studies that will be conducted in the future with the animation
technique, particular attention should be paid for ensuring that
the animations are not distracting, suitable to the levels of the
students and easily accessible by the students. It is my belief
that, in future studies formation of data warehouses from where
animations and simulations can be readily applied to the sub-
jects to be taught by the researchers will affect education activi-
ties positively and that it will be useful to repeat the concept of
this present study on the social sciences course at primary edu-
cation level and on physics, biology, astronomy and geography
courses at middle school and high school levels.
REFERENCES
Aksoy, G., & Doymuş, K. (2011). Effects of cooperative reading-writing-
application technique in application in science and technology course.
Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, 31, 43-59.
Aldağ, H., & Sezgin, M. E. (2002). Dual coding theory in multimedia
applications. Marmara Universitesi Ataturk Egitim Fakultesi Egitim
Bilimleri Dergisi, 15, 29-44.
Black, A. A. (2005). Spatial ability and earth science conceptual under-
standing. Journal of Geoscience Education, 53, 402-414.
Doymus, K. (2007). Effects of a cooperative learning strategy on tea-
ching and learning phases of matter and one-component phase dia-
grams. Journa l o f Ch e m ic a l Education, 84, 1857-1860.
doi:10.1021/ed084p1857
Doymuş, K., Şimşek, Ü., & Karaçöp, A. (2009). The effects of compu-
ter animations and cooperative learning methods in micro, macro and
symbolic level learning of states of matter. Eurasian Journal of Edu-
cational Research, 36, 109-128.
Frailich, M., Kesner, M., & Hofstein, A. (2009). Enhancing students’
understanding of the concept of chemical bonding by using activities
provided on an interactive website. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 46, 289-310. doi:10.1002/tea.20278
Hakverdi-Can, M., & Dana, T. M. (2012). Exemplary science teachers’
use of technology. The Turkish Online Journal of Technology, 11,
94-112.
Hall, T. (2012). Digital renaissance: The creative potential of narrative
technology in education. Creative Education, 3, 96-100.
doi:10.4236/ce.2012.31016
Karaçöp, A. (2010). Effects of jigsaw and animation tecniques on stu-
dents’ understanding of subjects on electrochemistry and chemical
bonding units. Erzurum: Ataturk University.
Kelly, R. M., & Jones, L. L. (2007). Exploring how different features of
animations of sodium chloride dissolution affect students’ explana-
tions. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 413-429.
doi:10.1007/s10956-007-9065-3
Kim, S., Yoon, M., Whang, S. M., Tversky, B., & Morrison, J. B. (2007).
The effect of animation on comprehension and interest. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 23, 260-270.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00219.x
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Aids to computer-based multime-
dia learning. Lear ni ng a nd Instruction, 12, 107-119.
doi:10.1016/S0959-4752(01)00018-4
McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2006). Research in education: Evi-
dence-based inquiry (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Nielsen, J. (1995). Guidelines for multimedia on the web. URL (last
checked 1 October 2004). http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9512.html
Özmen, H. (2008). The influence of computer-assisted instruction on
students’ conceptual understanding of chemical bonding and attitude
toward chemistry: A case for Turkey. Computers & Education, 51,
423-438. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.06.002
Öztürk-Ürek, R., & Tarhan, L. (2005). An active learning application based
on constructivism to remedy misconceptions on “covalent bonding”.
Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 28, 168-177.
Para, D., & Reis, Z. A. (2009). Egitimde bilisim teknolojileri kullanil-
masi: Kimyada su dongusu. 6th. Akademik Bilisim Konferansi Bildir-
ileri, Sanliurfa, 11-13 February 2009.
Ploetzner, R., Lippitsch, S., Galmbacher, M., Heuer, D., & Scherrer, S.
(2009). Students’ difficulties in learning from dynamic visualizations
and how they may be overcome. Computers in Human Behavior, 25,
56-65. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.06.006
Rotbain, Y., Marbach-Ad, G., & Stavy, R. (2008). Using a computer
animation to teach high school molecular biology. Journal of Science
Education and Technolo gy, 17, 49-58.
doi:10.1007/s10956-007-9080-4
Sanger, M. J., Brecheisen, D. M., & Hynek, B. M. (2001). Can compu-
ter animations affect college biology students’ conceptions about di-
ffusion & osmosis? The American Biology Teac her, 63, 104-109.
doi:10.1662/0002-7685(2001)063[0104:CCAACB]2.0.CO;2
Schank, P., & Kozma, R. (2002). Learning chemistry through the use of
a representation-based knowledge building environment. Journal of
Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 21, 253-279.
Sweller, J. (2005). Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia
learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multi-
media learning (pp. 19-30). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University
Press.
Talib, O., Matthews, R., & Secombe, M. (2005). Computer-animated
instructions and students conceptual chance in electrochemistry: Pre-
liminary qualitative analysis. International Education Journal, 5, 29-
42.
Tezcan, H., & Yılmaz, Ü. (2003). Success with the traditional teaching
method of teaching chemistry, computer animations and effects of
the conceptual. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 14, 18-
32.
URL1 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/energy_transfer.swf
URL2 (last checked 7 February 2012).
Copyright © 2012 SciRes. 307
G. AKSOY
http://msnucleus.org/membership/storybooks/foodchain.swf
URL3 (last checked 7 February 2012).
http://www.ecokids.ca/pub/eco_info/topics/frogs/chain_reaction/asse
ts/flash/chain_reaction.swf
URL4 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/explorer/ecosystems/be_an_e
xplorer/map/line_experiment14.swf
URL5 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.berghuis.co.nz/abiator/patana/6t/index/science/adapt/fc1.
swf
URL6 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://mrhardy.wikispaces.com/Natural+Disasters.swf
URL7 (last checked 7 February 2012).
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/volcano/
URL8 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.earthmatters4kids.org/EcoSystem.swf
URL9 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.wetrocks.com/pdf/ecosystem.swf
URL10 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.inspiredeconomies.com/intelligibleecosystems/Flash_Mo
dels.htm
URL11 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.wadsworthmedia.com/biology/0495119814_starr/big_pic
ture/ch41_bp.swf
URL12 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://atanesa.atauni.edu.tr/NesneGor.aspx?NesneId=7190
URL13 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://atanesa.atauni.edu.tr/NesneGor.aspx?NesneId=7192
URL14 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://www.poodwaddle.com/clocks/worldclock/
URL15 (last checked 7 January 2012).
http://cgz.e2bn.net/e2bn/leas/c99/schools/cgz/accounts/staff/rcham-
bers/GeoBytes/Content%20Generator%20Quizzes/Halfamin/Yr8Pop
ulation/population.swf
URL16 (last checked 5 February 2012).
http://www.shambles.net/worldclock/worldclock.swf
URL17 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.kidsnewsroom.org/climatechange/global_warming_versi
on2.html
URL18 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://library.thinkquest.org/28313/flash/globalwarming.htm
URL19 (last checked 6 January 2012).
http://www.fccj.info/gly1001/animations/Chapter20/GlobalWarming.
html
URL20 (last checked 5 February 2012).
http://www.kidsnewsroom.org/climatechange/water_cycle_version2.
html
URL21 (last checked 7 February 2012).
http://atanesa.atauni.edu.tr/NesneGor.aspx?NesneId=10503
URL22 (last checked 6 January 2012).
http://www.absorblearning.com/media/attachment.action?quick=vd&
att=2248
URL23 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/acidrain.swf
URL24 (last checked 9 February 2012).
http://www.ecokids.ca/pub/eco_info/topics/frogs/acid_rain/assets/fla
sh/acid_lake_final3.swf
URL25 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/carbon_cycle.swf
URL26 (last checked 8 February 2012).
http://www.ehso.com/ehso2.php?URL=http%3A%2F%2Fjwocky.gsf
c.nasa.gov/multi/multi.html
URL27 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://glencoe.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0078695104/383927/Vis
_Global_Effects.swf
URL28 (last checked 8 February 2012).
http://www.damocleseu.org/education/Animation_about_the_greenh
ouse_effect_182.shtml
URL29 (last checked 18 January 2012).
http://prof.danglais.pagespersoorange.fr/animations/environment/gre
enhouse/greenhouse.htm
URL30 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://www.keesfloor.nl/lezingen/greenhouse.swf
URL31 (last checked 15 January 2012).
http://sunshine.chpc.utah.edu/labs/atmosphere/greenhouse.swf
URL32 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://ecomuve.gse.harvard.edu/foodweb/Food%20Web.swf
URL33 (last checked 8 January 2012).
http://www.ecokids.ca/pub/eco_info/topics/frogs/chain_reaction/asse
ts/flash/chain_reaction.swf
Vermaat, H., Kramers-Pals, H., & Schank, P. (2004). The use of anima-
tions in chemical education. Proceedings of the International Conven -
tion of the Association for Educational Communications and Techno-
logy, Anaheim, October 2003, 430-441.
Weiss, R. E., Knowlton, D. S., & Morrison, G. R. (2002). Principles for
using animation in computer based instruction: Theoretical heuristics
for effective design. Computers in Human Behavior, 1 8, 465-477.
doi:10.1016/S0747-5632(01)00049-8
Wu, H. K., & Shah, P. (2004). Exploring visuospatial thinking in chem-
istry learning. Science Education, 88, 465-492.
doi:10.1002/sce.10126
Yang, E., Andre, T., & Greenbowe, T. J. (2003). Spatial ability and the
impact of visualization/animation on learning electrochemistry. In-
ternational Journa l of Science Education, 2 5 , 329-349.
Copyright © 2012 SciRes.
308